INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

2.6. Richard Atkinson's and Richard Shiffrin's Information Processing Theory. This
theory describes how information is processed into memory so that learners get the best out of
the stored information. Memory is the central point for learning, which is the ability to store
information that can be used at a later time. Hence, learners learn when the human mind takes
in information (encoding), performs an operation in it, stores the information (storage), and
retrieves it when needed (retrieval).

STAGES OF HUMAN MEMORY

1. Sensory Memory (SM). This stage utilizes all the different senses such as olfactory,
auditory, sight, smell, and touch in capturing information. Senses must be functional because
they help encode captured information that will be transferred to short- term memory. However,
it would only last for less than a second. An example of this is a learner going to school who may
enjoy looking at the beautiful green trees around but may tend to forget once he or she reaches
school.
2. Short-term Memory (STM). This stage selects information through processes of attention
and perception transferred by the sensory memory. The STM's role is to process information
perceived by the sensory memory. It is said to be the temporary storage of information because
short-term memory is working in progress while filtering the most important information to be
stored in the long-term memory (LTM). Once information is filtered, it is transferred to the LTM.
Nonetheless, if the LTM judges it as unnecessary and needs more filtering, it goes back to the
STM for review. After the STM reviews and deduces information, it is transferred to the LTM.
Once information is appropriate and right, it is brought to the LTM to be saved. If SM lasts for
only less than a second, STM would last up to 13-30 seconds. For example, when a transferee is
introduced to his or her teachers, he or she has a tendency is to forget some of their names.
Some strategies such as repetition, memorization, making sense, associating, and grouping
could be used to increase the capacity of short-term memory to recall.
3. Long-term Memory (LTM). It is the permanent storage of information related to the
different areas of life and is activated when information is needed. It is said that when we recall
information, we call on our LTM to help us remember things because it is the one that is
activated during the retrieval phase. It could last from minutes to a lifetime. For example, during
periodical exams in mathematics, learners recall the appropriate formula to solve a given
problem. Information on the LTM, if not rehearsed, can be forgotten.

THREE COMPONENTS OF LTM ACCORDING TO TULVING (1993)

1. Episodic. It is the recall of the particular time and place, events, and dates of one's personal
experiences.
2. Procedural. It is the recall of specific skills or steps in completing a task or refers to “knowing
how”
3. Semantic. It is the recall of general facts, principles, and concepts needed to answer
standard questions.
Causes of forgetting
1. Retrieval Failure. It explains that forgetting is due to the inability to recall information.
2. Decay Theory. It explains that forgetting is due to the failure to suing information.
Information gradually fades when it is not utilized.
3. Interference Theory. It explains that forgetting is due to the influence of other learning.
2.7. Allan Paivio's Dual-Coding Theory. This theory affirms that when two or more modalities
are used in teaching-learning, it is likely that learners learn better and faster. This theory upholds
the principle of individual differences and learning styles and addresses children with special
needs.
2.8. Robert Gagne's Cumulative Learning. This theory explains that learning skills are
arranged hierarchically from stimulus-response associations to concepts, principles, and
problem-solving.

HIERARCHY OF LEARNING
1. Signal Learning. This learning refers to responses that are learned involuntarily.
2. Stimulus-response Learning. This learning refers to responses that are learned voluntarily.
3. Chaining/Motor-Verbal response. This learning refers to combining or chaining two or
more separate motor or verbal responses to develop a more complex response.
4. Verbal Association. This learning refers to the use of verbal connections to create
associations.
5. Discrimination Learning. This learning refers to a selective response, which applies to given
stimuli.
6. Concept Learning. This learning refers to classifying and organizing perceptions to gain
meaningful concepts.
7. Principle Learning (Rule Learning). This learning refers to combining and relating
concepts to form rules.
8. Problem-solving. This learning refers to applying rules to appropriate problem situations. It
is considered the most complex condition.

NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

1. Gaining attention. It is the process of getting the learners' attention before the start of the
lesson. It is like asking the learners to pay attention to the discussion.
2. Informing learners of the objective/s. It is the process of telling the learners what to
expect in the lesson. When learners are informed of the objective/s and understand them, they
will be guided properly and know what to expect after.
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning. It is the process of reviewing the previous lesson.
4. Presenting the stimulus. It is the process of connecting the past lesson to the present
lesson.
5. Providing learning guidance. It is the process of presenting new concepts through guided
activities.
6. Eliciting performance. It is the process of knowing whether the learners understood the
lesson through oral participation.
7. Providing Feedback. It is the process of verbal feed-backing, praising those who performed
well, and encouraging more those who did not perform well.
8. Assessing performance. It is the process of evaluating the performance of the learners
either in a written examination or other means of authentic evaluation, 8.
9. Enhancing retention and transfer. It is the process of transferring learning to another
situation to enhance the retention of the lesson.

ROBERT GAGNE GAVE TWO REASONS WHY THERE IS A NEED TO TRANSFER

LEARNING:
1. Learning in one context enhances a related performance in another context (Perkins &
Salomon, 1992).
2. Learning is extended in one context to new contexts (Brandsford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999).
Types of Transfer of Learning

Specific. Learning is transferred to similar situations.

Example: When the learner is able to balance himself or herself on a 4-inch beam, he or
she is able to balance himself or herself on an elevated 4-inch beam.
Lateral. The learner is able to perform a new task at about the same level.
Example: Learners can solve word problems given in text and later solve a similar problem
on the board.
General. Learning is transferred to dissimilar situations.
Example: When the learner is able to balance himself or herself on a low beam, he or she
is able to balance himself or herself on a bicycle.
Vertical. The learner is able to learn more advance or complex skills.
Example: Learners are able to add and multiply or read and write.
LESSON 4: CONSTRUCTIVISM APPROACH
The constructivism approach is anchored on Jean Piaget's Cognitive Constructivism and Lev Vygotsky's
Social advocates that learners build knowledge out of their experiences and ideas. This knowledge is then
shared and enhanced through interaction with significant others.

Jean Piaget observed that learners create new knowledge from their prior experiences through the
processes of assimilation and accommodation. However, Vygotsky, who has been a supporter of Piaget's
work, insists that for learners to gain a greater amount of learning, they should be in constant encounter
with significant others. Vygotsky (1978) explained that a deeper understanding of concepts is achieved
through language and interaction with one another.

Sotto (2007) believed learners take responsibility for their learning, while teachers facilitate learning within
a social context. In short, learners are allowed to work individually and collectively, Lave and Wenger
(1991) and Duffy (2009) stressed that learning does not only depend on cognitive processes but also social
interactions community engagement, and other learning processes in a "contextualized" learning.

Beliefs of Constructivism

 Society and culture affect learning.

 Learning involves community engagement.
 Social interaction is equally important because of the characteristics of learners as social learners.

3.1. Jean Piaget's Cognitive Constructivism. This theory stresses that learners take active roles in
understanding, creating, and making sense of information in terms of developmental stages,
developmental tasks, and learning styles. The following are the major considerations when applying this
theory:

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage 1-Sensorimotor Stage
 From birth to two-year-old
 a child’s knowledge is limited to his or her use of the senses

The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. This is the stage when a child who is initially reflexive in
grasping, sucking, and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity.

The term sensorimotor focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement through which the
infant comes to learn about himself and the world. In working with children in the sensorimotor stage,
teachers should aim to provide a rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects to play with.

Object permanence
This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even when out of sight. This ability is
attained in the sensory-motor stage.

Stage 2- Preoperational Stage

 From two to six years’ old
 a child learns through the use of language.
 Mental manipulation of information does not take place yet

The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old, roughly corresponding to the
preschool years.

Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental
representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of symbols.
This stage is highlighted by the following:

Symbolic Function
This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a thing that represents something
else. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to be understood as representing a real object
like a real MRT train. Symbolic function gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7 years.

Riel, a two-year-old may pretend that she is drinking from a glass that is really empty. Though she already
pretends the presence of water, the glass remains to be glass. At around four years of age, Nico, may,
after pretending to drink from an empty glass, turns the glass into a rocket ship or a telephone. By the age
of 6 or 7 the child can pretend to play with objects that exist only in his mind. Enzo, who is six, can do a
whole ninja turtle routine without any costume or "props". Tria, who is 7 can pretend to host an elaborate
princess ball only in her mind.

Egocentrism
This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone also has
the same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of others. You see this in the five-year-old
boy who buys a toy truck for his mother's birthday. Or a three-year-old girl who cannot understand why
her cousins call her daddy, uncle, and not daddy.

Centration
This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and
exclude other aspects.

For example, when a child is presented with two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child
will say they have the same amount of water. However, once water from one of the glasses is transferred
to an obviously taller but narrower glass, the child might say that there is more water in the taller glass.
The child only focused or "centered" only one aspect of the new glass, which is a taller glass. The child was
not able to perceive that the new glass is also narrower. The child only centered on the height of the glass
and excluded the width in determining the amount of water in the glass.

Irreversibility
Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can understand that 2
+ 3 is 5, but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2.

Animism
This is the tendency of children to attribute human-like traits or characteristics to inanimate
objects. When at night, the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply, "Mr. Sun is asleep “.

Transductive reasoning
This refers to the pre-operational child's type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.
The reasoning appears to be from particular to particular i.e., if A Causes B, then B causes A.

For example, since her mommy comes home every day around six o'clock in the evening, when asked why
it is already night, the child will say, "because my mom is already home."

Stage 3-Concrete Operational Stage

 From 7 to 11 years old
 a child begins to think logically and have a better understanding of mental operations.
 Abstract concepts are still difficult to understand

This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects.
This covers approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary school years.

The concrete operational stage is marked by the following:

Decentering
 This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations. No
longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This allows the child to be more logical
when dealing with concrete objects and situations.

Reversibility
During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that certain operations can be
done in reverse. For example, they can already comprehend the commutative property of addition, and
that subtraction is the reverse of addition. They can also understand that a ball of clay shaped into a
dinosaur can again be rolled back into a ball of clay.

Conservation
This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume, or
area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. Because of the development of the child's
ability to decenter and also reversibility, the concrete operational child can now judge rightly that the
amount of water in a taller but narrower container is still the same as when the water was in the shorter
but wider glass. The children progress to attain conservation abilities gradually being pre- conservers,
transitional thinkers, and then a conserver.

Seriation
This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as
weight, volume, or size.

Stage 4-Formal Operational Stage

 From 12 years old to adulthood
 A person has the ability to think in abstract concepts

In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more
logical. They can now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize.

Hypothetical Reasoning
This is the ability to come up with different hypotheses about a problem and to gather and weigh
data in order to make a final decision or judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete
objects. The individuals can now deal with "What if" questions.

Analogical reasoning
This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to
narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or problem. The individual in the formal
operations stage can make an analogy.

If the United Kingdom is to Europe, then the Philippines is too ___. The individual will reason that since the
UK is found in the continent of Europe then the Philippines is found in what continent? Then Asia is his
answer.

Through reflective thought and even in the absence of concrete objects, the individual can now understand
relationships and do analogical reasoning.

Deductive Reasoning
This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular instance or situation.
For example, all countries near the north pole have cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North pole.
Therefore, Greenland has cold temperatures.

From Piaget's findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive the following principles:

1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different stages of cognitive development.

2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or situations that engage learners and
require adaptation (i.e., assimilation and accommodation).

3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate level of motor or mental operations
for a child of given age; avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their current
cognitive capabilities.
 4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present challenges. Teaching the Pre-
operational Child

3.2. Lev Semanovich Vygotsky's Social Constructivism. This theory emphasizes thin learning is built
through social encounters with peers and adults. The heart of learning involves active social interaction.
Social interaction vis-à-vis culture is vital in the learning process. As mentioned by Tomasello et al. (1993),
social interaction and culture affect learning. Meaning, forming their own view of the world relies heavily
on interaction with significant others and the essentiality of culture. This leg to Vygotsky's sociocultural
theory. The following are the major considerations when applying this theory:

1. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). It refers to the gap between actual and potential
development. The actual development is what learners can do on their own. Potential development is what
learners do with help.

2. Scaffolds (Sf). It is competent assistance extended to the learners as they begin the journey of
learning. These scaffolds could be circumvented once learners have learned already.

3. Social Interaction (SI). It refers to the frequent interaction of learners with other people that
influence learning.

4. More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). It refers to significant others that learners look for when in
doubt. Ones who have grander knowledge than the learners.

3.3. Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory. This theory is simply known as the "Voovoo or Bobo
doll" experiment. In this experiment, Bandura used inflatable redounding Bobo Dolls to represent social
models of the novel (new) violent behavior and nonviolent behavior of young children (Zhou & Brown,
2015). Based on this experiment, it can be concluded that novel patterns of behavior can be acquired
through observing the behaviors of others or directly experiencing being with others (Bandura, 1971). In
other words, learners learn through simulation and modeling, which means watching (observing) someone
called a social model and imitating the model's behavior at a later time. In short, learners operate on the
power of examples from others.

Since social learning theory encompasses attention, memory, and motivation, it serves as a bridge
between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories. Hence, Bandura renamed it a social cognitive theory.
The social cognitive theory claims that learning occurs through a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the
learner, environment, and behavior within a social context (Zhou & Brown, 2015).

According to Bandura, models are classified as:

1. Real-life or Direct Modeling. It is a type of modeling where learners imitate the model's behavior.

2. Symbolic Modeling. It is a type of modeling where learners imitate the behaviors displayed by
characters in books, plays, movies, or television.

3. Synthesized Modeling. It is a type of modeling where learners develop behaviors by combining

portions of observed acts.

4. Abstract Modeling. It is a type of modeling where learners infer a system of rules by observing
examples where rules are displayed.

Concepts in Social Learning Theory According to Bandura Vicarious Learning.

1. Vicarious Learning. Learning is acquired from observing the consequences of others’ behavior.

2. Self-regulated Learning. Learning occurs when learners observe, assess, and judge their own
behavior against their own standards. Subsequently, they reward themselves when successful or punish
themselves when they fail.

Four Phases of Observational Learning According to Bandura’s Attention.

1. Attention. This phase requires learners to initially pay attention to be able to observe fully the
distinctive features of the model's behavior.

2. Retention. This phase allows learners to retain or recall the observed behavior.

3. Motor Reproduction Process. This phase entails physical skills and coordination because they are
needed for the imitation of the learned behavior.

4. Motivational Process. This phase causes learners to explicitly perform the modeled behavior to
receive favorable conditions.

3.4. Jean Lave and Wenger's Situated Learning. This theory posits that learners learn in particular
situations and contexts in which the nature of the situation significantly impacts the process of learning.
More so when learning involves social relationships and co-participation exists between and among
learners. They share various conversations of the same type, which they term a Community of Practice
(COP). The cop is an organic self-organized group of individuals from various geographical locations.
Though coming from different places, they come together and communicate regularly to discuss issues of
mutual interest and the best interest of the group. Other related theories that are significant to learning
could either be explicitly classified as behaviorist, cognitivist, or constructivist because of their varied
natures.

1. Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences. This theory postulates that persons have the capacity to
possess all intelligence in varying degrees because of the influence of both heredity and the environment.
Gardner defines intelligence as the overall mental ability of a learner. He has utilized aspects of cognitive
and developmental psychology, anthropology, and sociology to support his claim on human intellect.

Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligence became a phenomenon in the education industry as a conventional
model in various capacities that understand and teach human intellect learning style, personality
development, and understanding behaviors (Chapman, 2014).

Gardner knew that his multiple intelligences theory had some room to grow since he mentioned that
multiple intelligences were not limited to the original seven. Furthermore, Gardner believed that there
could be additional intelligence worthy of inclusion in the model.

Chapman (2014) stated that Gardner added Naturalist Intelligence (refers to relationship toward natural
environment), Spiritual or Existential Intelligence (refers to a relationship toward Supreme Being or refers
to one's philosophy or belief), and Moral Intelligence (refers to taking care of the welfare of living things
and their well-being) among the list of bits of intelligence.

2. Robert Sternberg's Triarchic intelligence. This theory believes that learners learn even outside the
classroom. The environment is the best classroom for them. Thus, learners are encouraged to explore the
outside world to give meaning to their learnings.

Kinds of Intelligence

1. Practical intelligence. The ability to do well in formal and in informal educational settings; is
also known as "street smart" individuals.

2. Experiential intelligence. The ability to deal with current situations so that novel situations
that may arise in the future are easily handled.

3. Componential intelligence. The ability to process metacognition and knowledge-acquisition

components effectively.

3. Wilhelm Wundt's Structuralism. This theory assumes the discovery structure of the mind is built
upon the basic elements of ideas and sensations and could only be completed through introspection.
Introspection is the self-examination of one's thoughts, memories, perceptions, and motivations (Zhou &
Brown, 2015).
4. William James' Functionalism. This theory examines how the mind functions and the mental
processing that leads to adaptive While the functionalists were concerned with both mental processes and
adaptive behavior, the major emphasis was on behavior (Zhou & Brown, 2015).

5. Kurt Lewin's "life space" and "field theory." "Life space" refers to reality such as needs,
aspirations, desires, and goals, while "field theory" refers to the functions of both person and environment.
Hence, learning occurs when the learners' existing environment is in harmony with their present reality.
Therefore, learning activities must be relevant to their needs, aspirations, and goals.

6. Daniel Goleman's Emotional Intelligence. This theory highlights the role of emotion in the
development of an individual's personality, which eventually affects the progress of learning and behavior.

7. David Kolb's Experiential Learning. This theory focuses on constructing knowledge as a result of
one's reflective experience, which serves as the main driving force in learning (Baker, Jensen, & Kolb,
2002).