Instruments

C-3

Only need dynamic (pitot head) pressure for air speed not static.

For the altimeter and vertical speed, it’s from the static source. In case if the pilot head its blocked
not working you need to open the valve from the static source so that you can have the air speed.

Pitot – Static System errors

Blockages:

PUD-SOD

Pitot blockage Underread in the descent – Static blockage overread in the descent

Leaks:
Chap 2

The purpose of the altimeter is terrain avoidance, aircraft separation, performance indicator, landing
(in poor weather).

Pressure settings

Height: vertical distance above a datum

Normally QFE set to indicate height above an aerodrome

Altitude: vertical distance above mean sea level

Normally QNH or PRS set

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QFE: prevailing pressure at an airfield - Hight / zero

Altimeter reads zero on the ground.

QNH: pressure measured at an aerodrome – Altitude / elevation

Based in ISA values, corrected to MSL pressure

Altimeter nidificates airport elevation on the ground

RPS: regional pressure settings also known as Area QNH - Alt

Lowest forecast QNH from several stations within a designated region

Updated hourly and promulgated via ATC or flight info services (FIS)

Standard pressure setting (SPS) / Standard altimeter setting (SAS) – Flight level

Altimeter indicates height above se SPS 1013.25hPa

Pressure altitude

Reported as flight levels (FL) FL = pressure altitude / 100

500ft intervals (VFR/IFR)

RADALT gives us the distance between the aircraft and the ground using radar, usually used during
landing.

WGS 84: the mathematical tool that we use for GPS.

Altimeter errors

Blockage of static port – the height where the blockage occurred will remain the same shown
regardless if you climb or decent.

SOD: Static overread descent

Synoptic chart

Barometric

When getting from a high pressure to a low pressure we need to keep aware of the flight level.

Bc when moving from HP to LP the ACFT descent by itself even though in the altimeter shows the
same altitude.

3 common error to all pressure instrument: instrument: manufacturing imperfections / manoeuvre:

brief changes in pressure at the static vent / position: due to turbulence in pressure head.

Climb: it under read because it takes more time.

Of the descent it overread it takes less time

Temperature has an effect on the altimeter due to the distance between the molecules. Warmer
more space and colder condensed.

Temp error = 4 ft per deg of deviation from ISA per 1000 ft

Expl: for 5000 ft = 5 deg C

OAT: 30 deg C

ISA DEV = +25 deg C

Pressure difference is 500 ft

Pressure decrease capsule expand

Vertical speed indicators

The purpose is to convert the static pressure changes into a mechanical movement.

Nonlinear scale for takeoff and landing gives more accuracy.

Conversion 100ft/min = 1 knot

ROD = rate of descent // ground speed (knot) x 5 -- (3 deg x 100/60 = 5)

VS can be measured in ft/min or m/s

1 m/s = 200 ft/min

Metering unit, allows pressure to equalize.

Air speed indicator – ASI

Dynamic = ½ pV2

Pitot = Dynamic + Static

Dynamic = Pitot – Static

Knots (Kt) = Nm/hr

KMPH = Km/hr

m/s = M/Sec

mPh = Miles / hr

indicated air speed  indicator

IAS <= TAS (true air speed)

IAS = 90
Take into account Instrument pressure error

CAS (calibrated air speed) RAS= 92

Take into account Compressibility > 300 Kts

EAS (equivalent air speed)= 95

Take into account Density

TAS (true air speed)= 105

Limit Operation Indication

Color code for ASI

White arc : flap operating range

Green arc: normal operating speed range, smooth and turbulent operation

Yellow arc : caution range , smooth air operation only

VS0 : stalling speed landing configuration

VFE : Max flap extension speed

VS1: stalling speed clean configuration

VNO : normal speed op

VNE : never exceed speed (red line) above VMO / MMO

VYSE : best rate of climb speed, on engine INOP

VMCA : minimum asymmetric control speed at maximum weight

VMO / MMO: Maximum operating speed / Mach No

CAS and RAS are the same value the only difference is how we get them.

RAS it`s done manually but the CAS is done automatically by computer.

KIAS = Knots Indicated Air Speed

Blockages and leaks

SOD  Static overread in the Descent

POD  Pitot underread in the Descent

Machmeter

The analogue machmeter determine the mach number by using pressure static.

The machmeter displays the Mach number it’s not a speed but a ratio.

The mach is the ration of acft true air speed to the local seep of sound .79 = 79% the speed of sound.

The local speed of sound is the speed which sound waves travel around the acft.

In the analogue machmeter there is 2 capsules one of airspeed and one for altitude – altitude
capsule.

They both allow the machmeter to adjust the altitude and display somewhat accurate mach number.
Digital machmeter are more accurate than the analogue one, because they facture in the
temperature when calculating the mach number.

The source of info is the sensors (pitot tube) this info is then to the air date computer that the
calculate and display it.

In ISA condition the speed is 661 knots 1235 km/h

The speed of sound is not constant and it’s connected to the changes with air temp only.

The higher the air temp the higher the speed of sound so you move faster.

The lower the air temp the lower the speed of sound so you move slower.

VMO / MMO speeds must never be exceeded in any phase of the flight.

Exceeding MMO can lead to Mach Tuck.

Mach tuck is a dangerous phenomenon that occurs when the acft approaches transonic speed near
mach 1. It causes acft noses to pitch don uncontrollably.

VMO unit : KIAS

0.7 MAC ~7 miles per min ~ 420 TAS

LSS = Local Speed of Sound = 38.94 racine carre Temp in Kelvin - 38.94 √ TEMP∈kelvin K

Mach number = TAS/LSS

In a climb or descent speed is controlled by pitch.

In cruise speed is controlled by managing the trust.

TAS is affected by density and temp & pressure.

If maintaining a cste IAS/CAS as density decreases the TAS increases

If maintaining a cste IAS/CAS as density increases the TAS decreases

In a climb TAS Increases due to decreasing density so Mach No increases due to the increases of the
TAS and decreasing of Local speed of sound (LSS)

Maintaining a constant TAS during a climb : IAS/CAS must decrease

to minting the same TAS.

Mach No increases due to the colder temp and therefore decreasing the LSS.

Maintaining cste mach no IAS/CAS & TAS must decrease

TAS UP due to down press

LSS remains cste

In a cruse if temp down with the same altitude : TAS Down due to high air density

LSS : down bc of the temp going down

Mach no CSTE because both TAS and LSS decreasing so the ratio is the same.

COFFIN CORNER : LSS decrease with cold air and reaching Mmo can occur sooner.

Air Data computer

It gets the info from pitot static

It’s a component in an aircraft’s avionics system, it processes data from pressure and temp sensors.

ADC Advantage : improved display , reduced instrument & lag error, error correction – position error,
comparator system (cross check) for failure indications, central source for other systems, lower
maintenance costs – less pipes, shorter pitot and static lines, reduced weight.

PFD = primary flight display.

Physical input : Pressure (pitot & static), total air temp, angle of attack, Sideslip angle.

Outputs : Altitude, vertical speed, IAS/CAS/TAS/ Mach No ,Static air temp ,total air temp,
transponder, assists in calculating wind velocity.

The ADC does not compute ground speed this is derived from other system nav sys INS,IRS OR GNSS

Air Temperature

OAT Probes are designed to measure ambient air temp.

Total Air Temperature (TAT) : measure ambient temp + heating effect (friction of the air on the
probe)

SAT (static air temperature) = Ambient air temp = Outside air temp (OAT)

TAT is always greater than SAT

The heating effect on TAT is called RAM Rise which is the temp diff between SAT and TAT.

Kelvin = deg C + 273

Fahrenheit F = C x 1.8 + 32 --- C = (F – 32)/1.8

Measuring temperature :

- Thermal expansion Up to 500 deg C (measure only OAT )

- Changing resistance Up to 850 deg C
- Thermocouples Up to 2000 deg C (in the hot sections of the acft)
2 distinction metals connected to 2 junctions (hot & cold)

TAT = SAT (1 + 0.2x M2)

SAT = TAT / (1 + 0.2x M2)

Angle of attack sensors and stall warning system.

Stall tabs

Reed type stall warning

Reed = vibrating metal strip

Works using the principals of aerodynamic suction and resonating reeds to generate audible warning.
AoA vane moves because of the wind.

Conical probe : sense differences in air pressure at multiple points of the surface.

Stick shaker speed = Vs + higher of 5 knots or 5%

Minimum maneuvering speed low speed.

SPS prevent stall SWS only provides warning

Aviate

Navigate

Communication

Terrestrial magnetism

Magnetic Dip

Compass swing is a calibration procedure to determine the amount by which the compass readings
are affected by magnetism.

- Determine deviations on certain headings

- To correct / remove as much deviation as possible
- Record the residual deviation which is left after the compass has been adjusted

Direct reading magnetic compass

It indicated the direction on the earth, magnetic compass.

Horizontality, keep the magnetic flow as horizontal as possible.

Sensitivity, we want to be fairly sensitive, not very sensitive and not.

Aperiodicity, reduce the sensitivity so that it can give us a good value and settle and don’t move a lot.

It has 3 limitations :

Turning and acceleration errors due to dip

Closeness to source of deviation (electric …)

The ins is self-contained but it is not possible to out put the magnetic reading.
Plane Pushes the Pivot nearer the Pole.

Heading increase  compass card anticlockwise

Heading decrees  compass card clockwise

ACC error EAST OR WEST NOT NORTH OR SOUTH !!

DEAP : Deceleration towards the Equator, Acceleration towards the Pole.

Turning errors NORTH OR SOUTH, THE le triangle noir TURNS INTO THE RIGHT DIRECTION BUT THE
CENTER OF GRAVITY TURNS TO THE OTHER SIDE.

UNOS : Under reads turning through North, Over reads through South

Unos in the northern hemisphere

Gyroscopic principles

When forces applied

Topple : vertical

Drift : spin axis

High TAS – high radius of turn – low rate of turn

Low TAS – low radius of turn – high rate of turn

High Bank Angle – low radius of turn – high rate of turn

Low bank angle – high radius of turn – low rate of turn

Attitude indictor or Artificial horizon

The purpose is to display pitch and roll info, it’s either driven by air or electricity.

Markings:
- Blue = Sky

- Brown = Ground

– Aircraft symbol in yellow

– pitch angle (graduation)

– roll angle on the top.

2 deg of freedom

Gyroscope does not move the A/C does.

Air driven indicators.

When you accelerate, we get an error.

The horizon bar goes down due to the acceleration and the result it indicates a false climb.

Roll error

When accelerating in shows a false climb with a right turn

When deceleration in shows a false descent with a left turn

Turning errors – slide photo iPad.

Elec driven

ADI = Attitude Direction Indicator

Radio altimeter

Measures aircraft Height

It will provide height and or rate of change of height for: Autopilot, auto-throttle and flight director.

Ground proximity warning system

Traffic collision and avoidance system

It’s composed of a transmit & receive unit

2 antennas: one for the transmission and one for the reception.

Inertial navigation

It’s self-contained

Force = mass x acceleration

Force and acceleration are related

Accelerometers are designed to accurately measure aircraft accelerations along defined axes.

Integration is the sum of all the accelerations that we have obtained, sum them over time to
calculate the velocity.

Platform should be aligned with it and stationary, we will use the gyroscope because of its rigidity.

They all operate in True heading not magnetic.

North East  Long Latt

Errors 1-2 NM/h : Bound & Unbound

Boud error: limits

Unbound error: could be anything

Computing and Auto flight control system

AFCS is a set of integrated systems that can fly and navigate the aircraft, artificially increasing the
aircraft’s stability.

The primary purpose is to overcome stability and control deficiency, improve handling & ride quality.
Carry out difficult maneuvers.