CHAPTER 10 - EVOLUTION

→ Survival of organisms that have adapted best to the environment and give birth to fertile
descendants.
→ Process by which new types or organisms develop from other existing types of organisms.

1. Difference between a hypothesis and theory

Theory Hypothesis

- A hypothesis that has undergone several tests -This is an idea or explanation for something that
and has passed most is called a theory. Tested hasn’t yet be proven true
and confirmed.
- Explanation or model based on observation,
experimentation and reasoning

Evolution is a theory because several hypotheses regarding evolution have been tested and
confirmed over the course of time. There are several pieces of evidence that we use to substantiate
this hypothesis:

1. Fossil records
2. Biogeography
3. Change through lineage and structural similarities
4. Genetic Similarities
5. Chemical Evidence

2. Different types of evidence for evolution

1. Fossil records

● Fossils are the remains of organisms that lived millions of years ago. These are usually the hard
parts of an organism that remain, such as the exoskeleton.
● Fossils provide evidence about the climate and environment millions of years ago. Fossil records
show how living organisms have changed and evolved over periods of time to adapt to this
changing climate.

2. Biogeography

● Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species.

● Species that are related to each other are usually found in the same area. If a species evolved
from another, they would live in closed areas.

3. Modification by descent and structural similarities

Analogous body Structures Homologous Body Structures

What is When organisms that are not closely When species evolve from a common
this? related develop similar structures. ancestor and share similar traits.
(Same function, different structure)

Example? The wings of butterflies vs. the wings of The structure of the bones in a whale's
birds fin legs is homologous to the human
arm.

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 Kind of Convergent evolution (when organisms Divergent evolution (when species from
evolution? that are not closely related, common ancestor
Similar adaptations developed and share similar characteristics)
independently)

➢ Development of the embryo:

▪ Embryos of many animals are similar.
▪ It supports the idea of modification by descent or organisms that have evolved from a
common ancestor.
▪ In an early stage it is difficult to tell the difference between the embryo of fish,chick, human or
pig.

4. Genetic Ancestry

The study of genetics deals with the similarities in and differences of related organisms. Genetic
evidence that organisms are closely related and likely have a common ancestor includes:

● identical DNA structure

● Similar sequence of genes
● similar parts of DNA with no functions
● similar mutations (mitochondrial DNA)

3. Theories of evolution
Over the years, many different theories of evolution have developed. There are two main theories,
Darwin's and Lamarck's. Both of these theories use the mechanism of gradualism to explain change,
but later a new theory, punctuated equilibrium, was discovered that better explains it.

Darwinism (Charles Darwin)

● Law of Natural Selection: Nature selects the individuals that are best suited to survive where
they live (selection pressure). This individual has more babies, and their babies often have the
same good qualities. Over time, it can change the entire group of creatures and even create new
types!

● The use of Darwinism to explain giraffes with long necks:

1. Originally, there was great variation in the giraffe population.

2. Some had long necks, others had short necks.
3. Due to limited availability of food.
4. Long-necked giraffes were able to reach the food higher up in the trees, and they survived.
5. Those with shorter necks couldn't get to the food and they died.
6. Those who survived were able to reproduce and transmit the trait for a long neck.
7. Now all giraffes have long necks.

Lamarckism (Jean-Baptiste Chevalier de Lamarck)

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● Law of Use and Disuse: Change occurs as a result of adaptation to a change in the
environment. Due to increased dependence on a particular trait, it becomes more developed and
this leads to a physical change.

● Law of Acquired Traits: If a creature changed during its lifetime, it passed that change on to its
babies.

● Why is he wrong? His theory was not accepted, but rather rejected, because an acquired trait
cannot be passed on to offspring – heredity is genetic!

Lamarckism Darwinism
Variation within individuals. Variation within a population.
Change was because of individuals who wanted Changes were random and determined by
to change. environmental factors.
Change happened as a result of arbitrary Change happened because of natural selection.
adaptation to an environment.
The altered structures are passed on to the next The 'good' traits are passed on by the offspring
generation. after their ancestors have used those very traits
to survive in that environment.

Gradualism

● Darwin and Lamarck use the theory of gradualism to explain their theories of evolution.
● It is a model of slow gradual change. Very little change can occur for hundreds of years and can
leave gaps in the fossil record.

Punctuated equilibrium (Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould)

● This is not the theory that Darwin or Lamarck germinated, but it is more accurate.
● Hypothesis explaining the speed at which evolution will occur: Evolution does not occur
gradually, but rather in sudden bursts after long periods of no change.

4. Darwin's theories of evolution

Natural selection

How does it work?

1. There is a lot of variation among offspring as they differ from parents due to genetic variation.
2. When the environment changes or there is competition (for food, space, etc.)
3. The offspring with beneficial traits for the new environment/competition will survive.
4. The organisms without the beneficial less in to adapt and will therefore die out.
5. This means that more offspring in the next generation will have the beneficial trait(s). The next
generation will have a greater percentage of individuals with the new trait.
6. These differences accumulate and eventually all individuals in a population have the new trait.

The Role That Genetic Variation Plays in Natural Selection

Genetic evidence and variation

There is also some variation between individuals of the same species in a population. This variation
can be caused by:

● Crossover during Prophase I of meiosis involves an exchange of genetic material.

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● Random arrangement of chromosomes at the equator during metaphase.
● Random fertilization between different eggs and different sperm.
● Random mating between organisms within a species.
● A mutation changes the structure of a gene or chromosome and therefore the organism's
genotype. Since the genotype influences the phenotype, it creates organisms with new, different
traits from one generation to the next

→ Selection pressure: This is when environmental factors determine whether organisms

have suitable variations to survive
→ Continuous variation: Characteristic of any species that changes gradually over a
series of values
→ Discontinuous variation: Characteristic of any species with a limited number of
possible values
→ Natural selection and adaptation: Adaptation is any change in the structure or
functioning of an organism that makes it more suitable for the environment.
Adaptation is characteristics selected by natural selection because of selection
pressure

5. Artificial selection
What is Artificial Selection?

Artificial selection in domesticated animals - Racehorses

● Racehorses: the fastest hinks are bred with the fastest mare.

● Then breed fast-running offspring with either a fast male or female parent.

● Eventually, all offspring would be fast running horses.

Artificial Selection in Plants - Corn

● Corn: comes from theosinte plant – native to Mexico.

● Modern corn has large soft kernels.

● Ancestor had small hard kernels.

● A lot of variation in population, e.g. fleshy or small seeds, many or few seeds.

● Larger plump kernels taste better and are planted.

● Offspring carry more alleles for fleshy seeds.

● Over many years of selection, the frequency of genetic variation will increase.

Disadvantages of Artificial Selection

● Deprives population of its variation.

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● Organisms can be very vulnerable to disease or change in environment.

● The entire population could potentially be wiped out by disease/drought.

Differences Between Artificial Selection and Natural Selection

Artificial selection Natural selection

Controlled by humans Controlled by nature (selection pressure)

It occurs to satisfy a human purpose. This occurs so that animals can adapt to their
environment.
Can occur in one or more species. Will occur within a species.

Similarities Between Artificial Selection and Natural Selection

Artificial selection Natural selection

Controlled by humans Controlled by nature

It occurs to satisfy a human purpose. This occurs so that animals can adapt to their
environment.
Can occur in one or more species. Will occur within a species.

6. Speciation
The process by which new species [Link] evolutionary changes in species are due to genetic
changes.

o Allopatric (geographic) speciation

New species are formed from existing species when a part of a population becomes isolated from the
parent population due to physical barriers. For example: continental drifting, oceans, rivers,
mountains, or other natural disturbances such as volcanoes or earthquakes.

● Separation results in two populations that develop into isolation.

● There is no gene flow between the two populations.
● Each population can be exposed to different environmental conditions.
● Natural selection occurs independently in each of the two populations.

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● Individuals of the two population eigenins differ from each other (genotype and phenotype).
● So these two populations can no longer crossbreed because they are different species.

o Sympatric speciation

A new species arises from an existing species in the same geographical area because of behavioral
differences. New species can become isolated from ancestral species with respect to reproduction

Breeds at different times of the year

● Different animal species mate at different times of the year.

● If one species reproduces in the spring and the other species reproduces in the fall, it is
impossible for them to crossbreed.

Species-specific courtship

● If courtship is unsuccessful, mating and fertilization will not take place.

● Only individuals of the same species will recognize the signs of their unique courtship.
● This form of identification prevents crossbreeding.

Mechanical insulation

● Flowers have different adaptations that make them suitable for pollination. This ensures that they
receive pollen only from one type of species.
● The shells of snails rotate in different directions so that their genitals sit in different places. This
prevents different species from crossbreeding.

Development of sterile offspring

● Two different species that crossbreed can produce hybrid species.

● This hybrid offspring is not fertile.

7. Evolution in modern times

Modern evolution emerges in phenomena such as: resistance to antiretrovirals in the MI virus,
resistance to antibiotics in bacteria, resistance of insecticides in insects.

Resistance of insects to DDT

● DDT was at one point used to control insect pests, over time they built up resistance.
● If a mutation arises that makes the insect resistant to DDT, the insect will survive.
● When this insect reproduces again, the mutation will be transmitted.
● Those who do not have the mutation will die.
● DDT is applied as an insecticide and acts as a selection pressure.