Biological classification

Chapter-2 Prof. [Link].

Syllabus:-1) Two kingdom classification 2) Five kingdom classification 3) kingdom-Monera.

4) Kingdom-Protista 5) Kingdom-Fungi 6) Kingdom-Plantae 7) Viruses, Viroids and Lichens.
********************************************************************************
Biological classification:
1) The process of orderly arrangement of plants and animals in specific taxonomic category based on
their similarities, differences and relationships with others is called biological classification.
2) Aristotle was the earliest biologist to begin classification of plants and animals.
3) He used simple morphological characters for the classification of plants and animals.
4) He classified plants into trees, shrubs and herbs.
5) He also divided the animals into two groups such as a) those animals with blood and b) those
without blood. This classification is incomplete and unscientific.
1. Two-Kingdom classification.
I) In Linnaeus time, a two- kingdom system of classification was proposed.
2) It divided plants and animals into Plantae and Animalia respectively.
3) This system did not distinguish between prokaryotes and eukaryotes
4) This system of classification is also incomplete.
2. Five kingdom classification.
1) R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed five kingdom classifications of organisms.
2) It is based on: cell complexity, nutrition, reproduction and phylogeny (CNRP).
3) He classified living organisms into five kingdoms such as Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
Merits (Good points)
1) Separation of organisms into prokaryotes & eukaryotes.
2) Prokaryotes are placed in Monera. 5-kingdom classification of living organisms: (Whittaker)
3) Fungi are placed in separate kingdom. 1. Kingdom-Monera (prokaryotes)
4) The system is natural & phylogenetic. 2. Kingdom—Protista (unicellular-Eukaryotes)
5) It is based on the complexity of cell, nutrition, 3. Kingdom-- Fungi (achlorophyllous-Eukaryotes)
reproduction and phylogeny (CNRP). [Link]—Plantae( Multicellular, green eukaryotes)
Demerits (faults): [Link]—Animalia (Multicellularr animals)
1) Viruses, viroid & lichens have been ignored. 6. Acellular organisms-Viruses, viroids, prions & lichens
2) Members of algae have not been placed properly.
3) Both autotrophs & heterotrophs have been placed in Monera.
Details of 5-Kingdom classification: 1. Archaebacteria
I) KINGDOM: MONERA:
Monera 2. Mycoplasma
1) All monerans are prokaryotes. i. Bacteria
2) They are all microscopic forms. 3. Eubacteria
3) They possess primitive nucleus called nucleoid. ii. Cyanobacteria
4) The cells are covered by peptidoglycan cell wall (Polysaccharide & nitrogen).
5) They do not possess cell organelles except 70S ribosomes.
6) They do not divide by mitosis and meiosis.
7) They reproduce by asexual methods only.
8) Monera includes a) Archaebacteria b) Mycoplasma and c) Eubacteria (AME).
a) Archaebcteria. (Refer page -13 for sketches) Archaebacteria:
1) Archaebacteria are primitive (ancient) bacteria. 1. Halophiles (live in salty areas)
2) They belong to kingdom Monera. 2. Thermo-acidophiles-hot springs
3) They live in harsh (Unfavourable) places like hot springs, salt marshes etc. 3. Methanogens-marshy area & gut
4) They have highly resistant cell walls. This feature makes them to live in harsh conditions.
5) Archaebacteria are broadly classified into three categories namely,
i) Halophiles: They live in extreme salty areas under high intensity of light.
ii) Thermo-acidophiles: These live in hot springs ( Above 80o) with acidic PH

12
iii) Methanogens: They are methane producing, anaerobic archaebacteria living in marshy areas. They
convert H2 & CO2 into methane (CH4) gas for energy. They also live in the gut of cow, buffaloes etc.
They are employed in production of methane gas (biogas, gobar gas).
b) Mycoplasmas (PPLOs).
1) Mycoplasmas are the wall-less, smallest living cells known.
2) They are anaerobic prokaryotes.
Halophiles
3) They do not possess cell walls.
4) They are commonly called PPLOs (pleuro pneumonia-like organisms).
5) Many mycoplasmas are pathogenic in animals and plants.

Thermo-acidophiles Methanogens

c) Eubacteria.
1) These are true bacteria.
2) They possess peptidoglycan cell walls (Nitrogen &polysaccharides)
3) Motile forms possess simple flagella.
4) Eubacteria include true bacteria and cyanobacteria.
i) Bacteria.
1) Bacteria are the major prokaryotes of the kingdom Monera. (Nucleoid -
2) They occur in all places like water, soil, inside and outside the human body.
3) They can live in extreme places like hot springs, desert, snow, marshes etc.
4) They are unicellular, microscopic, abundant microorganisms.
5) They possess peptidoglycan (muramic acid) cell walls (Nitrogen+ Sugar).
6) They lack cytoplasmic organelles except 70S ribosomes& plasmids.
7) They bear mesosomes for respiration, cell division, DNA replication etc.
8) They do not divide by mitosis and meiosis.
9) They are simple organisms but show extensive metabolic activities.
10) Motile bacteria have simple flagella for locomotion.

Nutrition

1. Autotrophic 2. Heterotrophic

ii. Parasitic

[Link] i. Saprophytic

ii. Parasitic
ii. Chemosynthetic

11) Based on their shapes, bacteria are classified into four groups viz:
a) Coccus: It is spherical in shape.
b) Bacillus: It is rod shaped.
c) Vibrium: It is bean-seed shaped.
d) Spirillum: It is spring shaped.
12) Nutritionally, bacteria are classified as autotrophic and heterotrophic forms.

13
a) Autotrophic bacteria.
These bacteria manufacture their own food. They are of two types viz, photosynthetic and
chemosynthetic. Photosynthetic bacteria prepare their organic food from co 2 & H2 donor without
releasing o2.e.g; Chlorobium. Chemosynthetic bacteria oxidise iron, nitrate etc and obtain energy.
b) Heterotrophic bacteria.
These bacteria obtain organic food from other sources. They may be saprophytes or parasites.
Parasites obtain their food from other living organisms. While, saprophytes obtain their food from
dead organic matter.
Reproduction in bacteria.
1) Bacteria reproduce mainly by binary fission during favourable condition.
2) During unfavourable condition, they reproduce by spores.
3) They can also reproduce by Para sexual method. Here, DNA is transferred from one bacterium to
other bacterium by primitive method.
Importance of bacteria.
1) Bacteria are our friends as well as enemies. Eubacteria:
2) They play an important role in N2 cycle, sulphur cycle etc. a) True bacteria
3) Saprophytes clean up the area as decomposers. b) Cyanobacteria
4) Some bacteria are the source of antibiotics.
5) They are helpful in making curd from milk
6) Some are pathogenic. They cause damage to human beings, crops, farm animals and pets.
7) Diseases like cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker (plant disease) are the bacterial diseases.
ii) Cyanobacteria. Mucilage
1) Cyanobacteria are also prokaryotic, oxygen ( O2) releasing
moneran eubacteria.
2) They resemble bacteria in their cell wall, cytoplasm and
reproduction.
3) They are also called blue-green algae due to presence of red
&blue pigments.
4) They may be unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
5) They may be fresh water, marine or terrestrial.
6) The colonial forms are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath. (Mucilage)
7) Blue-green algae are oxygenic (Oxygen releasing) photoautotroph.
8) They have special cells called heterocysts. Heterocyst is concerned with nitrogen fixation.
9) Cyanobacteria reproduce by asexual method only (by akinetes)
10) Most cyanobacterial colonies form blooms (Mucilaginous mass) in polluted water bodies.
11) Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Anabaena, Spirulina etc. are the major cyanobacteria.

2. KINGDOM-PROTISTA.
1) The species of Protista are all a) aquatic, b) unicellular & c) eukaryotic.
2) The boundaries of this kingdom are not well defined by Whittaker. 2. kingdom Protista
3) They connect link with other species of plants, animals and fungi. [Link]-Diatoms
4) They may be autotrophic, parasitic or saprophytic. 2. Dinoflagellates—Gonyaulax
5) Plant cells have cellulose cell walls. They divide by mitosis and meiosis 3. Euglenoids—Euglena
6) They possess true nucleus as well as cell organelles. 4. Slime moulds—Stemonites
5. Protozoans (Amoeboid,
7) Some have cilia and some others have flagella for locomotion.
flagellated, Ciliated & Sporozoans)
8) They reproduce both by asexual and sexual methods.
9) The kingdom Protista includes:
a) Chrysophytes b) Dinoflagellates c) Euglenoids d) Slime moulds and e) Protozoans (CDESP).
a) Chrysophytes
1) The Chrysophytes include diatoms (Golden brown algae), desmids (green algae) etc.
2) They are found in fresh water as well as in marine water.
3) They are microscopic and planktonic. (Free-floating organisms are called plankton)
4) Most of them are photosynthetic. (autotrophic)

14
5) Diatoms are golden-brown, unicellular, aquatic forms. They are often called “Jewels of plant
kingdom”. Each diatom cell has two silicified, over-lapping, soap-box like cell walls. The huge deposit of
shell-like cell walls of dead diatoms without decay is called diatomaceous earth.
Economic importance of diatoms.
1) Diatoms are the chief producers (green plants) in oceans.
2) Being gritty, diatomaceous earth (DE) is used in polishing metals, filtration of oils, syrups etc.
3) It is also used in the preparation of cement, tooth paste, and sign-board paints.
Desmid
Gonyaulax

b) Dinoflagellates ( Gonyaulax,
Noctiluca etc.) (Plankton-Plural form ---
free floating organisms)
1) Dinoflagellates are unicellular,
biflagellate, photosynthetic,
planktonic marine protistans.
2) They appear green, yellow,
brown, blue or red depending on
their pigments.
3) The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates.
Dinoflagellate
4) Most of them are biflagellate. One flagellum lies longitudinally and the other lies in a furrow
between the wall plates. The red dinoflgellates (Gonyaulax) undergo rapid binary fission & make water
red. This phenomenon is called red tide. Some of the dinoflagellates secrete toxins which kill fishes.
C) Euglenoids.--Euglena
1) These are fresh water organisms found in stagnant water. Flagellum
2) They are unicellular, motile protistans, but with-out any cell walls.
3) They are covered by flexible, proteinaceous covering called pellicle.
4) They are holozoic (engulf minute animals) with two unequal flagella. Pellicle
5) They remain photosynthetic in sun light but heterotrophic in dark.
6) They have green pigments which are similar to those of higher plants.
d) Slime moulds -Stemonites Euglena
1) Slime moulds are saprophytic, fungus-like protistans without cell wall.
2) The fungal body is called plasmodium. It moves along the decaying branches and leaves.
3) It goes on swallowing organic matter while moving on the branches.
4) During favourable condition, the body develops into multinucleate, amoeboid mass called
plasmodium (plasmodia-plural).
5) During unfavourable condition, the plasmodium is changed into hard, erect fruiting body.
6) The mature fruiting body produces highly resistant spores which are covered by cellulose walls.
7) Under favourable condition, each spore germinates into plasmodium. The spores are dispersed by
air currents. In slime moulds, sexual reproduction is absent. Example: Stemonites (slime mould)
e) Protozoans.
1) All protozoans are unicellular, aquatic, heterotrophic protistans.
2) They possess animal-like nutrition & locomotion without cell walls.
3) They are the ancestors of higher animals. They live either as predators or parasites.
4) There are four major groups of protozoans such as
a) Amoeboid, b) Flagellated c) ciliated and d) Sporozoans.(AFCS)

i) Amoeboid protozoans.—Amoeba, Entamoeba

1) These organisms live in fresh water, sea water or on moist soil.
2) They move & capture their prey by means of pseudopodia e.g., Amoeba.
3) Entamoeba is a human endo-parasite.

15
 4) Marine forms have siliceous shell on their surface.
ii) Flagellated protozoans.--Trypanosoma
1) These are either free-living or parasitic flagellate protozoans.
2) Parasitic forms cause diseases.
3) For example, Trypanosoma causes sleeping sickness in man.
iii) Ciliated protozoans.--paramoecium Entamoeba
1) These are free-living, fresh water, motile, ciliated protozoans.
2) They have gullet (throat) for ingestion (swallowing) of prey.
3) They have two nuclei such as macronucleus and micronucleus.
4) They possess food vacuoles and two contractile vacuoles.
5) The cilia help in pushing food into gullet e.g., Paramoecium.
iv) Sporozoans. Malarial parasite-plasmodium
1) This group includes different types of protozoans.
Nucleus
2) They bear spore-like, infectious structure in their life cycles.
3) Malarial plasmodium is a sporozoan. It causes malarial disease.

ma
Saccharomyces sp. (Yeasts)-budding

KINGDOM-FUNGI (Mycota, Mycology) (Fungus-singular)

1) Fungi are a) non-chlorophilous, b) heterotrophic c) eukaryotic plants.
2) The study of fungi is called mycology.
3) In fungi, the plant body is called mycelium.
4) The mycelium consists of a net-work like, interwoven (twisted) hyphae.
5) The hyphae are long, tubular, slender, thread-like structural & functional units of mycelium.
6) They may be septate or aseptate structures. Some hyphae are coenocytic ( unicellular, aseptate,
multinucleate condition is called coenocyte).
7) The cell wall is made up of chitinous substance (nitrogen +sugars)
8) Fungi may be saprophytic (Rhizopus), parasitic (wheat rust) or symbiotic (lichens & mycorrhiza)
9) They reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods.
10) Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation, budding, fission etc.
11) Asexual reproduction occurs by conidia, zoospores, sporangiospores etc,
12) Sexual reproduction is brought about by means sexual spores such as zygospores, oospores,
ascospores & basidiospores. These spores are produced in distinct structures called fruiting bodies.
13) Sexual reproduction involves three steps such as a) Plasmogamy b) karyogamy &c) meiosis.
a) Plasmogamy: It is the fusion of cytoplasm of two cells or gametes. It results in dikaryon. The
dikaryotic cells develop into fruiting body ( dikaryon-a single cell with two free nuclei)).

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Plasmogamy Dikaryon Karyogamy (Zygote) meiosis Sexual spores (meiospores)

b) Karyogamy: It is the fusion of two nuclei. It results in the formation of zygote. It takes place in the
dikaryotic cells of fruiting body. (Spore producing body formed after Karyogamy –ascospores/basidiospores)
c) Meiosis: In zygote, meiosis takes place to form sexual spores such as oospores, ascospores &
basidiospores.
14) Based on the nature of mycelium, mode of spore formation and type of fruiting body, fungi are
classified into four classes viz, a) phycomycetes b) Ascomycetes c) Basidiomycetes and d)
Deuteromycetes.

16
 Mycelium--hyphae

a) Class- Phycomycetes. Mucor (Black fungus), Rhizopus, Albugo

1) Members of phycomycetes may be aquatic, saprophytic or obligate parasites.
2) The mycelium consists of colourless, branched coenocytic hyphae.
An unicellular, aseptate multinucleate hypha is known as coenocyte.
3) The cell wall is made up of chitinous substance (nitrogen &polysaccharide).
4) Asexual reproduction takes place by endogenous (internal), motile zoospores
or by non-motile aplanospores. These spores are produced in sporangia. (motile means flagellated, non-
motile-non flagellated)
5) Sexual reproduction takes place by one of the following methods.
a) Isogamy: It is the fusion between two similar, motile, flagellate gametes. It results in the formation
of zygote (Zygospore). Zygote (2n) formed by isogamy or anisogamy is called zygospore.
b) Anisogamy: It is the fusion between motile, dissimilar gametes. It also results in the formation of
zygospore (zygote). (Spores formed by zygospore (zygote) are called sexual spores/meiospores)
c) Oogamy : It is the fusion between one small, motile gamete and other large non motile gamete. It
results in oospore (zygote) (spores formed by this zygote are called sexual spores-ascospores, basidiospores).
6) In phycomycetes, fruiting bodies are not formed.
7) Examples: a) Saprophytes-Mucor, Rhizopus b) Albugo (parasitic on mustard).
Sexual reproduction Gametes Name of the Zygote Spores (After meiosis)
1. Isogamy: Similar in Motility, shape & size (MSS): Zygospore: Sexual spores/meiospores
2. Anisogamy: Dissimilar in motility, size & shape (DSS) Zygospore: Sexual spores/meiospore
3. Oogamy: small, motile male & large, nonmotile female Oospore: Sexual spores/meiospores

b) Class- Ascomycetes (sac fungus)-Penicillium, Aspergillus, Neurospora, yeast etc.

1) The species of Ascomycetes are commonly called sac fungi.
2) They may have unicellular (yeasts) or multicellular mycelium(Penicillium). Ascocarp (fruiting body)
3) They may be saprophytes, decomposers, parasites or coprophilous (growing on dung). The
mycelium consists of branched septate hyphae.
4) Asexual reproduction takes place by means of exogenous conidia cut off by conidiophores.
5) Sexual reproduction occurs through plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis.
6) The fruiting body of sac fungi is called ascocarp.
7) The ascocarp produces endogenous ascospores.
8) Examples: a)Yeasts: Unicellular fungi, used in brewing& baking industries.
b) Penicillium& Aspergillus are the source of antibiotics.
c) Neurospora is used in biochemical & genetic research.d) Morels & baffles are edible fungi.
c) Class-Basidiomycetes (Club fungi).--- Mushroom, smut, rust, puff ball etc.
1) The species of basidiomycetes are commonly called club fungi.
2) They include mushrooms, smut, wheat rust, puff balls etc.
3) They may be saprophytic (mushroom, puff ball) or parasitic (rust,smut)
4) The mycelium consists of branched septate hyphae.
5) Asexual reproduction is absent. Vegetative reproduction takes place by fragmentation. sex organs
are absent. Sexual reproduction takes place through plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis.
6) After plasmogamy, the dikaryotic hyphae develop into fruiting body called basidiocarp. The
basidiocarp produces exogenous basidiospores from basidia.

17
ia Conidia

Collatotrichum
Basidiocarp (Fruiting body) of Agaricus

7) Examples: a) Saprophytes & edible- Agaricus (mushroom)& puff balls b) Parasites-- rust & smut.
d) Deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi)
1) These are commonly called imperfect fungi, because they lack sexual reproduction. When their
sexual reproduction is identified, they are assigned either to sac fungi or club fungi
2) They may be saprophytes, parasites or decomposers.
3) The mycelium consists of septate, branched hyphae.
4) The deuteromycetes reproduce asexually by means of conidia.
Examples. Alternaria, Colletotrichum ,Trichoderma etc,
Characters Phycomyctes Ascomycetes Basidiomycetes Deuteromycetes
1) Mycelium Coenocytic hyphae Septate hyphea Septate hyphea Septate hyphea
2) Nutrition Saprophytic/parasitic Saprophytic/parasitic Saprophytic/parasitic Saprophytic/parasitic
3) Asexual Repn zoospores,Aplanospore conidia Not formed conidia
4) Fruiting body Not formed. Ascocarp Basidiocarp Asexual fruiting body
5) Sexual spores Zygo/oospore Ascospores Basidiospores Conidia. No sexual spores
6)Examples Rhizopus, Mucor Yeast, penicillium Mushroom, Rust Alternaria, Trichoderma

4 Class-Plantae
1 )The species of plantae are all multicellular, eukaryotic autotrophic and photosynthetic forms.
2) They are commonly called plants.
3) They may be terrestrial, aquatic, parasitic or insectivorous.
4) Their cells have chloroplasts and cellulose cell walls. Reserve food is starch.
5) Their life cycle has two phases viz gametophyte and sporophyte
6) They exhibit alternation of generations. Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes,
gymnosperms and angiosperms.
5. Class-Animalia
1) The species of Animalia are all multicellular, nongreen & hetertrophic animals
2) They have cells but lack cell wall.
3) They directly or indirectly depend on plants and plant products.
4) They have digestive system & the reserve food is glycogen.
5) They have definite growth and symmetry
6) They show locomotion &elaborate sensory and neuromotor mechanism.
7) They exhibit sexual reproduction.
6) Viruses, viroids and Lichens.
There are some acellular organisms which have been ignored by Whittakar in his 5-kingdom
classification since they are not truely living. They include viruses, viroids and lichens.
a) Viruses.
1) Viruses are nucleoproteinaceous, obligate parasites.(Nucleic acid+proteins=Nucleoproteinaceous)
2)They do not find a place in Whittaker’s 5-kingdom classification.
3) The term virus ( which means poisonous fluid) was given by Louis Pasteur.
4) D.L. Ivanowsky (1892) noticed viruses, causing tobacco mosaic disease. (TMD)
He found out that they were passing through bacterial filters.
5) [Link] (1898) showed that viruses were infectious living fluid.
6) [Link] Crystallised viruses and showed the presence of protein s.

18
 Properties of viruses:
[Link]-gave the term virus
1) Viruses are non-cellular, nucleoproteinaceous, obligate parasites. 2. Ivanowsky-observed TMD
2) They are neither completely living nor completely non-living. 3. Beijernek— virus infectious fluid
3) They are inert (inactive) outside their specific host cells. [Link] W.M-crystallised virus
4) They have outer protein coat and inner DNA or RNA, but never both.
5) In viruses, the protein coat is called capsid
6) The capsid is made up of small, spring-like protein units called capsomeres.
7) The core (inner space) consists of either DNA or RNA but never both.
8) In viruses, the nucleic acid (DNA & RNA) is infectious, but not protein coat.
9) In general, plant viruses have RNA (TMV) while animal viruses have ss RNA or ds DNA.
10) Bacteriophages have ds DNA ( phage is a virus that infects & kills bacteria)

Virus (TMV) Potato spindle tuber disease

Living and Non-living properties of virus

. Non-living Living properties
1) Viruses are non-cellular organisms. 1) Viruses are obligate parasites
2) They have inert crystalline structure. 2 ) They possess nucleic acid either DNA or RNA
3) They do not have their own metabolic system. 3) They can infect & replicate within their host
Diseases caused by viruses.
1) Viruses are obligate parasites. They cause mumps, smallpox, polio, cold, influenza, AIDS etc.
2) In plants, viruses cause mosaic disease, leaf- curling, leaf -rolling, vein- clearing, dwarfing, yellowing,
and stunted growth.
b) Viroids
1) Viroids are infectious, sub viral, self-duplicating RNA pathogens.
2) They are smaller than viruses.(sub viral) Viroid (RNA)
3) They do not come under Whittaker’s 5- kingdom classification.
4) They were first studied by [Link] (1971)
5) They are made up of small, low molecular, single-stranded (ss), circular RNA.
6) They neither contain protein nor DNA.
7) They cause potato spindle tuber disease (PSTD) in potato plants.
c) Lichens.
1) Lichens are double plants having symbiotic alga and a fungus.
2) The algal component of lichens is called phycobiont, while the fungal component is called
mycobiont. The alga is autotrophic, while fungus is heterotrophic, yet they live symbotically for mutual
benefit. In lichens, the alga prepares food for the fungus & for its own use, while the fungus provides a)
shelter b) minerals & c) water for algae.
3) The association of two, unrelated organisms for mutual benefit is known as symbiosis (friendly) &
the organisms are called symbionts.
4) Lichens are of three types viz, crustose, foliose and fruiticose lichens.
5) Crustose lichens are encrusted on rocks or bark. They cannot be separated easily from the substratum.
6) Foliose lichens resemble dried up leaves fixed on the branches of trees.
7) Fruiticose lichens may be erect or pendulous fixed on branches of trees.
8) Lichens do not live in polluted areas. Hence, they are used as pollution indicators.

19
 Foliose lichen

Suffix used for each category

20