ME3333E

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING: FUNDAMENTALS

AND APPLICATIONS
C O U R SE IN ST R U C TOR:
D r. Sa n g h a mi tra D a s ,
As s i s tan t Pr o fe ssor,
D e p t. o f Me c h an ical En g in e e rin g,
N IT C a l i c u t

ME3333E ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING: FUNDAMENTALS AND APPLICATIONS

 Introduction to AM
Classification: ASTM

1 Vat Photopolymerization
5 Sheet Lamination

2 Material Jetting

6 Powder Bed Fusion

3 Binder Jetting

7 Directed Energy Deposition

4 Material Extrusion
 Classification: ASTM 3

➢ VP: Liquid photopolymer in a vat is selectively cured by light activated

polymerisation.
➢ BJ: liq bonding agent is selectively deposited to join powder materials.
➢ MJ: Droplets of build material are selectively deposited.
➢ SL: Sheets of material are bonded to form an object.
➢ ME: Material is selectively dispensed through a nozzle or orifice.
➢ PBF: thermal energy selectively fuses regions of a powder bed
➢ DED: Focused thermal energy is used to fuse materials by melting as they
are being deposited.
Classification of AM processes as per 1SO/ASTM 52900
 Classification: ASTM 5

Vat Photo Material

Material Jetting Binder Jetting Sheet Lamination
Polymerization Extrusion

ASTM categorizes 7 basic AM processes

Multiple variations of these 7 AM processes exists the
core idea is same
Powder Bed Direct Energy
Fusion Deposition
 Vat Photopolymerisation- Liquid based AM
• Commonly known as stereolithography process
• First commercial AM process
• By Charles Chuck Hull
• Defined as an AM process in which liquid photopolymer in a vat is selectively cured by
light activated polymerisation
• Photopolymerization processes make use of liquid polymers that react to radiation to
become solid. This reaction is called photopolymerization, and liquids which
photopolymerize are known as photopolymers.
• A container (vat) containing photopolymers is exposed to repeated patterns of
radiation corresponding to cross-sections of the part being built.
 Photo-polymerization based Liquid AM
Working Principle
Photoinitiator, 𝑃𝑖 Photoinitiator excitation and Chain propagation
Chain initiation
Monomer, M Free radical (𝑃𝑖 )̇ generation

ℎ𝜈

• The photo-polymerization based liquid-AM processes build objects by photo-

curable liquid resin that cures or hardens under the exposure to a UV light. Chain Termination

• The UV light scans the cross-section of each slice to selectively curing it. After
complete curing of a layer, the build platform is pull down/up, and the next layer of
liquid resin spreads over/below the previous layer and similarly got cured.
• The whole object built by repeating the process for each layer.
• The uncured liquid drained from the vat and the object proceeds for further
processing.
Criteria for vat photopolymerisation

➢Raw material is a liquid photo polymer in a vat

➢Layers are selectively cured based on 3D model
➢The bonding mechanism is light induced
➢The bonding mechanism is polymerisation
 Working Principle: Sub-systems

1
Photo-polymer Liquid

2
UV Light

3
Scanning System

4
Build Direction

5
Recoating System
Different curing methods
Components of a typical SLA machine
1—printed part,
2—liquid resin,
3—building platform,
4—UV laser source,
5—XY scanning mirror,
6—laser beam,
7—resin tank,
8—window, and
9—layer-by-layer elevation

After a layer is formed, the pattern is

lowered or raised depending on
whether the machine uses top-down
or bottom –up approach.
Components of a typical DLP machine
1—printed part,
2—liquid resin,
3—building platform,
4—light source,
5—digital projector,
6—light beam,
7—resin tank,
8—window, and
9—layer-by-layer elevation

• Instead of a mirror to reflect a laser source, a

digital light projector is employed.
• In comparison with SLA, the DLP process is
faster as each layer is entirely exposed to the
curing light projected from the digital screen
 1—printed part,
Components of a typical CDLP/CLIP machine 2—liquid resin,
3— building platform,
4—light source,
Continuous process 5—digital projector,
6—light beam,
7—resin tank,
8—oxygen permeable
window,
9—dead zone, and
10—continuous elevation
• Employs digital protection with LEDs and oxygen permeable
window
• This oxygen-permeable window forms a so-called dead zone
as thick as a human hair, which allows the liquid resin to
flow between the interface of the printed part and the
window.
• Stair case effect is minimized
• Creates parts that are generally isotropic (uniform strength
 Classification of vat photo polymerisation process

Read from CP PAUL and AN JINOOP book, chapter 3

 Vector scanning
• Point laser source is used
• Most commonly used commercial process with laser
stereolithography
• Primarily classified into single-photon and multi-
photon vat photo polymerisation.
• Single photon: single point laser source is used for
curing and each layer is cured by scanning a UV laser
onto the layer of resin. Absorption of single photon
by a single molecule, which leads to initiation and
cross linking.
 Multi-photon VP
• First proposed by Stricker
• High resolution parts, dimensional accuracy in
the range of 100 nm and surface roughness of
10 nm
• Simultaneously absorbing two photons at a
longer wavelength usually in the red infrared
spectral region.
• It occurs in very small volumes and these
volumes are called as volume pixel or voxel and
usually lie at the focal point of the laser beam.
• Non liner phenomenon and it occurs when the
irradiance is sufficiently high and the combined
energy of two photons matches the transition
energy between the ground state and an
excited state.
 Area scanning
• Scanning of the entire cross-section of a layer simultaneously using a dynamic mask,
which is either liquid crystal display (LCD) based or digital micro-mirror device (DMD)
based.
• Digital light processing based stereolithography (DLP-SLA) is the most commonly used
area scanning process.
• Scanning is faster as the entire layer is radiated at once.
• DMD is used to project the desired cross-sections of light and functions as a dynamic
mask.
• Consists of several micro-mirrors kept in a rectangular array and it corresponds to the
pixels of the image to be displayed.
• The mirrors are capable of rotating 10-12 degrees, to an on or off state.
• The light from the light source is reflected in the lens, which makes the pixel look bright
in the ON state. While if the light is directed somewhere else, it is on the OFF state.
 Digital micro-mirror device (DMD)

A Digital micro-mirror device (DMD) is a binary light modulator that consists

of a rectangular array of square micro-mirrors that can be tilted around their
diagonals into either one of two stable positions. When the device is not
powered, the micro-mirrors lie flat, meaning the normal to the surface of
each micro-mirror is aligned with the optical axis of the device. When the
DMD is powered on, the micro-mirrors can be individually addressed and
rotated into either one of their two fixed operating positions. Those positions
being the mirror tilted 12 deg from the normal to the surface of the device,
sometimes referred to as the “on state” and the “off state.”
 Free surface and constrained surface
• Free surface: the part to be built grows inside a vat of resin

• Constrained surface: uses a bottom exposure arrangement in which the transparent

build platform is suspended above the resin bath
➢ The light source from the bottom allows curing of the photopolymer layer and the
layer adheres to the platform

• The major advantages of bottom exposure approach are:

1. Size is not limited by the depth of the vat
[Link] spreading is not mandatory as the liquid resin is constrained between
previously cured layers and tank
[Link] surface finish due to small layer thickness
 Advantages of VP Limitations of VP
• Simple and compact • Costly
• Quality and accuracy • Requires post curing
• Multi material capability • Support structures
• Prototyping • Material limitations (Raw material should be
• Micro-manufacturing photosensitive)

Applications of VP
• Medical applications: patient specific models and functional parts,
implantable devices, tissue engineering
• Tooling
• Microfluidics
 Process parameters of VP

• Laser power
• Scan speed
• Laser beam diameter
• Layer thickness
• Hatch spacing
• Hatching pattern
 Laser power

• When the light source comes in contact with the resin, a part of the
energy is dispersed and the other part is absorbed.
• The amount of energy absorbed by the resin governs the depth of
penetration and it is known as the maximum curing depth (CD), which is
estimated by:
𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 DP is the depth at which the laser intensity is 1/e of
𝑪𝑫 = 𝑫𝑷 × 𝐥𝐧 the surface value
𝑬𝒄𝒓 Emax is the macxm energy available at the resin
surface
𝟐 𝑷
𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙 = × Ecr is the critical energy required for curing of the
𝝅 𝒘×𝒗 resin
P is the laser power
v is the scan speed
w is the beam radius
• Scan speed: Maximum energy available at the resin surface reduces with
increase in scan speed, due to reduced interaction time between the
energy source and resin

• Laser beam diameter: increase in laser beam dia the intensity of

the laser beam at the surface reduces, which results in under curing
• Governs the minm size of the component

𝑪𝑫
𝑳𝑾 = 𝑫 ×
𝑫𝑷
D is laser spot size
LW is polymerized line width
• Layer thickness: Increase in layer thickness increases the build rate
• Increase stair stepping effect
• Higher surface roughness
• Under-curing at the bottom portion of a particular layer
• Reduces the strength

• Hatch spacing: distance between adjacent laser vector scans.

• Lower value reduces the amount of under cured resin, while a larger value than optimized
value increases the amount of under curing and allows the liquid resins to get trapped
inside the component.
 Working Principle: Sub-systems

1 Galvanometer
Photo-polymer Liquid Laser Beam
Flying Liquid
Flood Light
2 Flying Optics
UV Light
DLP
3 Mask
Scanning System
+Z Direction
4
- Z Direction
Build Direction
Deep Dipping Variable direction
5
Top Feeding
Recoating System
Bottom Feeding
Galvanometer
 StereoLithography Apparatus (SLA)

• Support structures are generated wherever required.

Pre-Processing • Planar slicing is performed.

• The table goes down by the required layer thickness and new liquid layer is
recoated (Deep Dipping/ Top Feeding)
Build -Process

• The beam scans the liquid layer. For each loop, the border is made and then area
filling is done. The outer contour is scanned with a small diameter laser beam
and area filling is done using a larger diameter beam.
• After all layers are made, the table rises completely revealing the part.
• After the liquid has drained, it is removed from the table and the support
structure is carefully cut off.
• The part is kept in a post-cure apparatus where it is kept under UV
Pre-Processing radiation to complete polymerization.
• The part is finished and painted as required.
 Laser Curing: Equations
Mathematical the Gaussian power intensity (power/area) distribution of a laser beam
can be given as:
2𝑟 2
𝐼𝑟 = 𝐼0 exp − 2
𝑤
Where 𝐼𝑟 is the power intensity (𝑊/𝑚2 ) at radius r, along the beam cross-section, 𝐼0 is the power intensity
for 𝑟 = 0, and 𝑤 is the magnitude of 𝑟 at which the power intensity is a fraction 1/𝑒 2 of 𝐼0 .

z
y

x
 Laser Curing

Y
Y

Z X
y
𝑡 = 𝑡1 2𝑙 𝑡 = 𝑡2
X
The intensity (𝑤/𝑚2 ) of the laser beam spot on the top surface of the resin can be defined as:
2𝑃0 2𝑟 2
𝐼= exp − 2
𝜋𝜔02 𝜔0

Total exposed energy per unit square E 𝐽ൗ𝑚2 of the surface of the resin (𝑧 = 0) can be defined as:

𝐸 𝑥, 𝑦, 0 = න𝐼𝑑𝑡

If this energy is falling from time 𝑡 = 𝑡1 to 𝑡 = 𝑡2 on the surface of resin then:

𝑡2
𝐸 𝑥, 𝑦, 0 = න 𝐼𝑑𝑡
𝑡1
 Laser Curing

Y
Y

Z X
y
𝑡 = 𝑡1 2𝑙 𝑡 = 𝑡2
X

2 𝑃0 2𝑦 2
𝐸 𝑦, 0 = exp − 2
𝜋 𝑉𝑥 𝜔0 𝜔0

P0: maxm laser power

w0: radius of gaussian beam (radius at which maxm intensity is reduced to (1/e2) I0
Vx: laser has scanned a single bead along X-direction (−𝑙 to +𝑙 where the length of vat is 2𝑙)
on the surface of resin with a velocity Vx
 Laser Curing

Y
Y
X

y
Z
X

When a laser beam strikes the resin surface, it's energy got absorbed and exposed energy decline with
depth (𝑧). According to beer-lambert law the available energy at depth ‘z’ is can be defined as:
𝑧
𝐸 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝐸 𝑦, 0 exp −
𝐷𝑝

2 𝑃0 2𝑦 2 𝑧
𝐸 𝑦, 𝑧 = exp − 2 exp −
𝜋 𝑉𝑥 𝜔0 𝜔0 𝐷𝑝

Where 𝐷𝑝 is defined as ‘penetration depth’. It can be observed that at 𝑧 = 𝐷𝑝 the available energy is
1
reduced to (37%). Normally 𝐷𝑝 value is between 0.14 to 0.18mm
𝑒
 Laser Curing

2 𝑃0
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (At y=0 and z=0)
𝜋 𝑉𝑥 𝜔0

Laser scanning velocity can be written as

2 𝑃0 𝑬𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑪𝒅 = 𝑫𝒑 × 𝐥𝐧
𝜋 𝑉𝑥 𝜔0 𝑬𝒄

𝐶𝑑 • The laser scan velocity if directly proportional to

𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸𝑐 exp
𝐷𝑝 the laser power.
• Laser scan velocity is inversely proportional to
spot size.
2 𝑃0 1 𝐶𝑑 • Laser scan velocity decreases exponentially with
𝑉𝑥 = exp − the ratio 𝐶𝑑 /𝐷𝑝
𝜋 𝜔0 𝐸𝑐 𝐷𝑝
 Laser Curing

The time, 𝑡𝑙 , taken for a photon to pass through a single resin layer of thickness, 𝐿𝑝 , is
𝐿𝑝
equal to where 𝑐𝑟 is the velocity of light in the resin. Typically, 𝑡𝑙 is of the order of a
𝐶𝑟
picosecond.

The process of cross-linking that follows free radical generation takes much time (𝑡𝑘 ) for
cross-linking in conditions typical of SL is of the order of microseconds.

The time needed for the laser exposure to reach 99.99% of its value when a Gaussian
beam is scanned at a constant velocity past a given point is called the characteristic
exposure time, 𝑡𝑒 . The typical range of this time in SL is from 50 to 2000 𝜇𝑠, so 𝑡𝑒 is much
larger than 𝑡𝑙 and 𝑡𝑘 .
Material jetting
 Material jetting
As per ASTM, material jetting is defined as an AM process in which
droplets of build material are selectively deposited
• Printing as a three-dimensional building method was first demonstrated in the 1980s
with patents related to the development of Ballistic Particle Manufacturing, which
involved simple deposition of “particles” of material.

• The first commercially successful technology was the ModelMaker from Sanders
Prototype (now Solidscape), introduced in 1994, which printed a basic wax material.

• These are considered the first MJT technologies, since they represent the first AM
machines for which all of the part material is dis pensed from a print head.

• In 1996, 3D Systems joined the competition with the introduction of the Actua 2100,
another wax-based printing machine.
Any process that satisfies the following three criteria is a MJ process:
✓Material droplets as the build material
✓Selective deposition of the droplet
✓Deposition is carried out as per the 2D section of layer
Schematic arrangement
 Process mechanism
• MJ starts with 3D model data sliced into several layers
• For each layer, photopolymer droplets are selectively deposited by a
jetting head onto a build platform by moving the jetting head in the xy
plane.
• The jetting head can have either single or multiple nozzles, which are
either used for multi-material deposition or deposition of part material
and support material.
• Once the material is selectively deposited, UV light source is used to
initialize a polymerisation reaction.
• After curing, the build platform moves down in the z direction as per
the layer thickness and the deposition process for the next layer begins.
 MJ

continuous Drop-on demand

Schematic of (a) continuous (b) drop-on-demand
 Continuous MJ
• Continuous drops of material are generated under
pressure through a nozzle from the continuous
flowing jet of material.
• The regular and continuous stream of ink drops is
achieved by the vibration of appropriate amplitude
and frequency using piezoelectric transducers.
• Piezoelectric transducer vibrates the stream→ breaks
into uniform droplets.
• Deploys an electrically conducting material and charge
the drop by using an electrode kept adjacent to it at
an appropriate potential.
• Subsequently, the drops are deflected by an amount,
which depends on their charge by using a fixed electric
field.
• The drops that are not charged are captured and
reused, whereas the charged drops are focused onto
the build plate.
• The amount of charge governs the position where the
drops strike.
 Drop-on-demand MJ
• Typically possess a collection of
nozzles
• Each of these nozzles ejects drops,
only when it is required.
• An actuator is used for transferring
momentum to the defined ink
volume yielding its ejection as a
drop.
• The momentum transfer is
achieved either by (a) piezoelectric
deposition head or (b) thermal
head.

No signal ⇒ No droplet
 Piezoelectric deposition head Thermal head.
• When an electrical charge is • Deploys resistive heating to raise the
applied, these elements bend internal temperature
or shear, which creates a • Ink boiling and bubble formation which
pressure change and displaces forces the droplet out of the nozzle.
a definite volume of ink from
the nozzle onto the build
platform
No pressure No droplet
 Process parameters
• Layer thickness
➢ (16-32) μm
• Surface finishing type
➢ Glossy or matte finish
• Building location
• Part spacing
• Part orientation
• Laser power, scan speed, curing time
 Quality issues in material jetting

Various defect scenarios of a 3D part generated with material jetting based on UV-curables
 Quality issues in material jetting
• Shrinkage
• Layer height consistency: droplets variations in drop volume, drop shape,
deviation in the travel trajectory resulting in positioning inaccuracy, substrate
irregularities , nozzle failure due to nozzle clogging or shrinkage upon curing
• Oxygen inhibition
• Gas dissolvement
• Coffee-ring effect: phenomenon that occurs in particle-loaded solvent-based
inks. Describes the deposition of particles at the outer edge of the original ink
droplet, that occurs during evaporation. This is caused by a higher rate of
evaporation at the outer rim of the droplet. Evaporated ink causes liquid ink from
inside the droplet to move to the outer edge. The resulting capillary flow transports
particles to the outer edge.
Material jetting for advanced applications: A state-of-the-art review, gaps and future directions by Ahmed Elkaseer ,Karin J.
Chen, Jan C. Janhsen, Oliver Refle, Veit Hagenmeyer and Steffen G. Scholz,
 Variants of MJ
• Ballistic particle manufacturing: uses micro droplets of molten wax from a
moving nozzle

• Aerosol jet technology:

➢ A focussed aerosol jet (suspension of fine or solid particles in gas) is
concentrated and focussed on a substrate to build the desired geometries.
➢ Supports wide variety of materials including conductive nanoparticle inks and
polymers, insulators, adhesives and etchants.
➢ Process begins with the atomisation of the material using ultra-sonification or
pneumatic atomisation to form micro droplets of size ranging from 20 nm to 5
μm dia.
➢ The aerosol is carried by a carrier gas (generally N2) to the deposition head,
where it is focussed and further accelerated out through the nozzle.
• Laser induced forward transfer (LIFT)
➢ Uses a pulsed laser and transfers material
locally from a source film to a substrate by
keeping the substrate close and parallel to
the film.
➢ The source material is coated as a film of
liquid or solid or pastes onto a laser
transparent thin sheet.
➢ The pulsed laser energy is hot and
absorbed by the film coating.
➢ If the incident laser energy exceeds the
threshold value, the vaporisation of a small
amount of material takes place and
material gets expelled from the source to
the substrate.