CHAPTERY

INTEGRALS
5.1 Area and Distances.
We have simple formulas to find the area of 52), rectangles /A wl) and triangles (A 1 b h) Other
regular shapes such Squares (A as = =
,
=
.

regular shapes - such as

polygons - could

be divided to simpler shapes like triangles , makingthe mission of finding their areas
very easy

↓ut functions are complicated ,

Findingthe area under a curve could be
challenging because they can't be easilydivided to regular shapes
, .

=>
One to estimate the area under a curve is by
dividing it to equal rectangles this could be done from the
right left sides and it could be an over- or under-estimation to the real
way
or
, ,

area value. This estimation becomes more accurate when the number of rectangles increases.

After first findthe area of each individual rectangle then add the
dividingthe area me want Is find to rectangles ,
me aria .
When
writingthe sam oh many terms ,
me use
Sigma notation to make the process

easierwiteith
Formulas for Sigma notation :constanand
* Use triangles to estimate the area under the parabola
you from tothe regions e
-
Our function is face) = x?, restricted to the closed interval [o 17 , .

Dividing S to " ( = n)
rectangles ,
each one will have a base (width) of su
= the
height (length) of each rectangle is obtained from our function F(x) = x2

When
calculating the area from the right side , we take the points : a+ i s ( = x ; ) i starts
,
from I to n
,
so in this example we have : x
,
= s+ 1(4) ( =
, xz = 0 + 2(t) E =
, z= 0+ 3(4) = andxy =0 +
4(4) =

In this example, Ry (the area calculated from the right , 4 = number of rectangles) would give u n over estimation , looking at the rectangles ,
we see that
they go over the line of regions - the sum of their areas

is more than the actual area .

With numbers : Ry Far + fear f(z)an +f(ppx Du(f( ) + f(x)+ f(z) +F(p) +[(++ ( 171+ (172)
= + =
,
= + = 0 . 46875 and since this is an overestimation , we
say
that A30 46375 .
.

from the left side

Now
finding the area ,
when
using a tisk , i starts at and ends at n -1 : x
0
=0 +
0(4) = 0
,
x
,
=0+
1(f) t =
, xz = 0+ 2(t) E =
,
and
xz = ++ 3) = 2 .
In this case , Ly (the area calculated from the

left) is an underestimation, the

rectangles don't include the entire S area .

With numbers : L = Fran F(r + x+ f(x2an 7(,)ax sx(f(xa f(x) 7() +f(xy) t[(x (f) 11+ 17
+ = + + = + + =0 . 21575, because this is less than the actual area , we
say
A 70 21575 .
.

21575 < A30

Combining the two results : 0. . 46875

Whether a value is an over- or under-estimation depends on the

concavity of the graph .
It's NOT a rule that R is overestimated and Luis underestimated .

Also
Dividing to more
rectangles gives more precise results . When n= S: :

We can also find the area

using the limit as n 8 .
& as n increases , Ly& R
, approach 's

=>
ShowingthathimBu =i) :

R is the Sum ofthe areas of

n
rectangles ,
each with width Ar = -and height (Ru=.. + +2(1 = :
+ 27 3+ 47 ... + n4
=4 mi ... +

The term between parentheses could be written as the

Sigma notation for int- >
Rn =
6 n2

=>Limulimi

The same method could be used to prove that lit= as well

Here of S , not an estimate

we
got A =hiR-limn= ,
which is the exact area

* The area A of the

region S that lies under the graph of the continuous function f is the limit of the sum of the areas of
approximating rectangles :

AlimR limerfsufa ]:

Since the function is continuous the limit ,

always exists .
We
get the same value using left endpoint s :

Alinlimfsuffer .
Instead of right- and left-endpoints, we could take the height of the ith
rectangle as the value of fat any number in the ith subinterval [x ) the numbers , ... are called
-

n
,.,, ? ,
Sample points A lim [fu Fif f(x] + ... +

We write the expressions for area

can
using Sigma notations :

Using right endpoints :

Alim
=

Using left endpoints :

Ali
-

Using Sample points :

A-lim
Suppose an object moves with velocity v fit) =
,
where a t1b and fet) zo so that the object always moves in the positive direction .

We take
velocity readings at times t=al ,
t t
, , z, ..., tr C = bl so that the
vebcity is approximately constant on each subinterval If these times are
.

equallyspaced then the time between two

,

readings is At= b

During the first time interval the velocity is approximately fits) and so the distance travelled is
approximately f(t) st - the total distance
during [a b) f(tet fit,st
,
: + +... + f(tn -
10t

which could be written as(t;11st . Or

by using right endpoints Act 1st f(t)st :
,
+ +... + f(tuist =s
The more
frequently we measure the
velocity the more accurate
,
our estimates become. the exact distanced travelled is the limit of such expressions : dlimslim

5.2 The definite integral.

If a function f is a function defined for a keb , we can divide the interval [a b] into , n subintervals of equal widths. The endpoints of these subintervals are(a)
·
,
e
...,l ,

and the sample points in them are ***..., where Lies in the ith subinterval

Then the definite integral off from a to bis Findu-lim

:
-

Provided that this limit exists the value for all possible choices of sample point then we say that f is integrable (a , b).
and gives same ,
on

&fas
3
de the lower limit of the upper limit, the
Integral Sign , integration , integrand.

do is
simply used to indicate the independent variable .

Calculating an
integral is called Integration . Riemann Sum

The difinite
integral Stars doe gives a number, it doesn't depend on se itself,
writting any letter gives the same result : SFirda Susdu Szd = =

definite integral

&(xx is Riemann Sum , the definite

integral of a n
integrable function can be approximated to any desired degree of accuracy using a Riemann Sum

#Iff is positive the

,
Riemann sum can be interpreted as a sum of areas of
approximating rectangles ,
so the definite
integral gives the area under the curve
y
: fas on [a , b).

Iff takes both positive and negative values then the Riemann sum is the sum of the areas of the rectangles that lie above the k-axis and the negative of the areas of the
,

rectangles that lie below the x-axis The definite

.
integral will be the net area , the difference of areas :
SF dx = A
, -An ,
where A , is the area

of the Az is the area below -axis .

graph above x-axis ,
and

& The area above the x-axis is below the

graph off ,
and vice versa.

* NOT all functions are if f is continuous on [a b), or iff has a limited number ofjump discontinuities then f is
integrable , ,
integrable on [a b], , ,

the definite
integral cusdue exists .

Ift is the limit of the Riemann Sum exists and often take the sample points to
integrable on (a, b) then
gives
the same value us matter how we
Sample points To
choose the .

simplify , we
be
right

endpoints then=x;
, ,
and I d-lim , where and a

When me use a limit to exaliate a definite

integral ,
me need to use the formulas for
Sigma statism and the rules for markingwith sams ,
such asa
+bil = und bi i ;

*
Express limSinc u s an
integral on the interval d ,

We replace E by I, bys ,
und a
by delimit sinsince
*"Evaluate the Riemann Sum for F(x) x"-bu ,
=
taking the sample points to be right endpoints and a= o
,
b = 3 , and n = 0 .

-x Rese
By Ax(f((z) + f(1)
= + f(3(2) + f(z) + f(S(z) + f(3)) =
12 - + ( 5) + 1 -) +1 -
4) +
- + 9) =
> = 3 9375
. .

=> f is positive function and so the Riemann represents the sum of the areas of the blue rectangles minus the sum ofthe areas of the
orange rectangles.
not a Sum
,

Ser
&
Evaluate Ga)da

*= bati) dlim

=him
lim+-
lim2
n
= 6
=

& The definite

integral represents the difference of areas A - Az

# We can evaluate
integrals by interpreting them in terms of area using geometry. ,

So
zeda
-
S (x-1)dx
,

f(x) =xz =
y
vx =
y 1 x2 f(x) 1 = 1
y
= = -
= x -
= x -

x2= 1 is the of a circle

:
y +
equation ,
:
equation of a line with slope = 1 .

area ofa
from to I means we want the
quarter-circle We can find the
integral as the difference of the areas of two rectangles.

. rdx = 9x -
1) dx = A , Az =
-

+(2)(2) * (1)()) - = 2 -

z= or 1 5
.
.

Properties oh the Definit Integral

The definition as limit oh Riemann sums is true whether a bor ab If reverse a and b
a .
,
s
changes from b to Therefore .
: Sdx -I =

If a = b ,then Ax = o and so Stud = .

0

Other basic properties oh integrals

assuming fand g continuous functions :
-

, are

Scdx = <b a) - = The

graph of the constant function fas =c is a
straight horizontal line , when
limiting the area to Sa ,
b) ,
we
get rectangle with dimensions (and (b-a)
a

&[f(x) =
gui]di = Sefixde Seguide = => First
,
the
integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals for positive functions the area
, ,
under
F+g is the area under f plus the area

of writef-gas f + (g).
under
g. For difference integrals
.
,
we can

Scfoxes du cS fcusdo
=
,
cis a constant

Sifcsd Safeda Safari de

+ =

Previous properties are true whether a sb ,

a =b
,
or a - b
.

Camparison properties of the Integral truly in ,

azb :

If f(x) 0 for a cab then Fud0 => The areas ,

I are positive .

If fixi -
girl
for a <zb then ,
If dugen diA bigger function has a
bigger integral .

If m = f(x) = M for a <x1b then ,

m(b-alF(xdM(b- a) = Iff is continuous, we could take mas the absolute minimum and M as the absolute maximum of for the interval

[a , b]. The area under the

graph off is greaterthan the area of the rectangle with height m, and less than the area of the rectangle with
height M .

The last
property is useful when we
only want rough estimate of the size of
a an
integral

Additional properties Ift is : even

,
then Stud 29. = Edu = 2Aud .
If is odd, then I x = 0
 1)A function F is even when faxes = fas and odd when F(-x) - f(x)
,
= .

5.3 The fundamental theorem of calculus.

The fundamental theorem of calculus connects the two branches of calculus ; differential calculus and
integral calculus .

=> Suppose thatfis continuous on [a , b) , then :

1 If
gives
=
Stdt then give ,
= f(x) .

2
-fixsdi = F(b)- Fal ,
where fis
any
untiderivative off that is ,
77.

& Part 1 : If F is
integrated and then the result is differentiated , we arrive back at the
origina function .

Part 2 : If we know an antiderivative Joff, then

evaluate sfudre simply by subtracting
we can the value of fat the
endpoints of the intervalda ,
b)

We can write the first part a s

a Sectio Firs and = -fresh ,
ctidt =

If one ,
or both limits of
integration are functions :ritidt fircr-fu)u
,
we use

K
=
,
where wandu are differentiable functionso

* If f is positive function then when

a
saying
that
goes ,
=
Sectsdt ,
o can
be interpreted as the area under the
graph off from a tore
,

where from to b (g is the"area far")

a can
vary a so .

-
Find the derivative of the function
gol
=
[Edt -

Evaluate
gi - dt g(x) =
6

Sa Inlal-huls-hul
x :

In 6-ln3
=
=
In = In 2

-
find sect at

gars )"etdttg(n) =
= +de

Seck). 4x 4 Seas"
gsx = =

5.4 Indefinite integral and the net change theorem.

Indefinite integrals :
Stixidi = Fires As Firs fases = .

* The rotation Sfcude is used for an untiderivative of fand is called an indefinite

integral -

The most
general antiderivative on a
given interval is obtained
by adding a constant to a
particular antiderivative :

S342dx = x+ C , because ( += 3
A definite
integral If do is a number, whereas an indefinite
integral /Firs du is a function (or a
familyof functions) .

cresde Stiridae] =

*
The effectiveness ofthe fundamental theorems dependsan
having supply oh antideratives of functions
a .

Any formula can be verified

by differentiatingthe function on the
right side and obtaining the integrandi

Ssecede = tance +C
because Stance + 1) = Sec

Evaluate : OS do
=sino do Jetocscodo--csca = +C
 ②
=

(2
+ F - E dt = 2t +
z + +

(2(a) = (9) -] (2)

*
= + + -
+
z(k) + +]

= 18 + 18 + 5 -
2 -

3 - 1 =
2
b

* The Net Change Theorem : The

integral of a rate of
change is the net
change :/findx = Fib) F(a)
-
.

=ins
represents the rate of change of y Fix) = with respect to r ,
and Fibl-Fal is the change
in when a changes from a tob .

DAlthough y might change in listh directions -

increase or decrease- , Feb)-fcal represents the not change in y
-
This principle canhe applied to all of the rate oh change in the natural and social sciences .

=> If an
object moves along straight line with position function sct)
a
,
then its velocity is wits : sit) So
fretsdt =
styl-Set, ) is the net
change
of position (Displacement) of the particle during the time period from t to ty
E
,

I we want to calculate the total distance the object travells the time interval have to consider the intervals when vc t,0 (the particle
during ,
we

moves to the
right) and also the intervals when vCt) O (the particle moves to the left) In both cases the distance
. is computed by integrating the

Speed /WCt)l :
Circesldt = Total DistanceTravelled .

Displacement =

firtdt = A , -Az + Az

Distance
= Stdt = A +AA
·
The acceleration of the object act) = v'(t),
so Lactide =
r(ty) -
vst )
,
.

A particle moves t2-2t-8 (m/s)

along a live so that its velocity at time t is v(t)
-

a find the displacement ofthe particle during the time period 12t16 .

6) Find the distance travelled during this time period .

a Displacement :
Factide =>
( : 2t -
81dt =
-+ - +2
st1
= 163 (6)2 8163] ( * (1) 112
- - - -
-

S(11) = 72 -
36 -
48 -

7 + 1 +8 =
- m

6) Total distance :
Itld (1 = + -2 + -S1dt

It ? 2t- sl = 1st -4)lt +

Y
2
:
fit
G

Slt
2 - 2t -Slat =

J
-
(t) 2t S)dt -
+

(2 -
2+ -
3dt =

(+ + 2+ + 3(d + + -
2t -
8)d7

=
-
jt + +i+
St)" +
++ - t St1
-

?
=
((5+(3) + (4) :
S(4)] [1 -(3) - -
+ (12+
Sx)]) ((((53) + -
16) S(6] [1 - (4)) (4)2
-
- -
-

5147])
=
(l- + 16 +
32) ( - -

5 + 1 +
S [(72 + -
36 -

48) -

1 - 16 -

32)]
=
( 4
+ 16 + 32 +
5 -
1 -

9) (72 + -
36 -
48 -

- + 16 + 32) =
The acceleration function (m/s) and initial for a particle
velocity movingabuyaline
act) = 2t + 3 w() = 4 02 + 23
are
given :
- -
.

, ,

find the
a)
velocity at time t
6) Find the distance travelled
during the given time interval .

a w(t) = a(t) Sa(t)dt = v(t)

S2t + 3dt = t2 + 3t + c

&(b) = ()+ 3() + 2 = -

4 = C = - 4 ,
the vebcity at time t is v(t) = +2+ 3t - 4 .
b) Total distance =

Sit + 3t -
41dt

| t2+ 3t 4) 11)
- it
-
= ((t + 4)(t -

Sit j(t
&

+ St -
41dt =

J
-
(2 +3t 4)dt - +

jYtz 3
+ 37 -
4)dt =

f) -
+2 3t
-
+ 4)d + + + 3t 4)dt -

=
-

(t y + -
2
+
4t] +
-zt 33t - 4t]+

=
(((13 3(11 4(11) () - (313 =(3)2 4(3)) (5(173 -(1) 4(1)]
-
+ + + -
-

+
-

= ( y 32 4) + ( +
-
- + - 12 -

(5 + 3 4)] -

=
- 3 -
+ y + 9+ 7
-
12 -

7 3 - + 4
= m

5.5 The substitution rule.

We can't evaluate
integrals such as
J2x
r di
using our table of antiderivatives. The
problem-solving strategyfor such integrals is to introduce

a and its different

Something extra . Here ,
we introduce a new variable, we
change the original variable to another variable u
,
write the
integral in terms of -

ial du , solve the

integral then switch back to our
original variable.
=> The substitution rule :
Sf(gc)gado Stude = . Qu =
g() @ =
gir due
* The substitution rule for integration was
proved using the Chain Rule for differentiation .

Guidelines for n-substitution :

Look for composition F(g(u) within the integrand for which the substitution u g() and du y'crid produces integral that is expressed
-

some = = an

entirely in terms of u and its differential du.

Evaluate the resultant

integral in terms of
-

Replace u by girl to express your final terms of

-

answer in se

The idea behind the secbstitution rule is to replace a semplicated integral by simples integral
relatively
-

Find :
DJcus
da + 2)
Sid =tant
u =
x"+ 2 (cos (a + 2)dx
= faudu = tan" (x2) + C .

stdx =da ⑤ Ju1 da

du = 4xdx = Sinu + C =
Sin(x 2) + +c

② Stand do u = x + 1x = u -
1
,
du = dx

Stando=do
Sin do findu = = In SiHdx ((n = -
1) du =
(n-ridu
u = 50 -
=
Inlsd + c = luskosditc = Infect =
fir-de Zu =

du = -Sindddt-du = Sind do
= (x + 1) z(x +1) -
+ c

③ Suitab

u = x+ 1 Spicedx +du t = =
.

2 +C
-u ,
de = -zudu

du = 3x2dx
=+= Sdr = zud
u) du
du = sid
-2)(1-42 du -2))l-2u
=
= +

Si di = -

2[u Eu yu5 c)
-
+ + = 2n +u zu+ c
-
We can't use u = I+ z "because du = 4rdi which we don't have , instead we rewrite =
-2(l-xe) (1-x" z(-x -
+ c

the integral as /d ,
then : u = x and du = Ixdx Edu = ee
 ⑨ Stamoseodo
⑦ #atbudu = = u = tand
Stanosecodo =
fundu =
-u +c

du = (3a + 3bx2)dx =
5 .
2n +c
=br ux + + c du = Sec'd do
= tano +c

bx2dx
=> +du = a +
Je Since
-
dx

③ Sinsturede u = Sx
ge
as
Since du =
-Je"du = -e" + c

u = Inx &
lenx) dr Ssinudu = = -cosu du = -Since da =
=
eBC

du
= da = -
Ds((nx) + C = -
du = Since da

When definite change the limits of integration when the variable is changed
evaluating a
integral by substitution ,
we .
First we make the substitution n =
gas ,
du =
g'(x)
do

directlyin the definite integral and then ,

use the relationship n =
g(x) to replace the
x-limits ,
x=a and x= b
, by corresponding -limits ,
u=
g(a) and u=
g(b) :

Symily's du /Ifus dur = a new definite integral expressed entirely in terms of .

=> If
up is continuous on [a , b) and f is continuous on an interval
containing the values
of
gies
for a x Eb ,
thenflylg'adu febu =

Calculate :
O d & de

u = lux
=In First we rewrite the
integral as :
Send e Sis = de

Suz taun]
4x
du = di = u] =
E- u= 2 =
2) 2, -
= du = du

2(3-4)
*
tari' vs-tain"
u(e) = Ine = 1
= du = 4 e dx = = du =

2[- +is]
**
u(l) = (n) = 0 u(x) = c = c =
1
-F =
=
=
- +
=] =
+ + () ( + 3)
+ -
+

& 7 dx use =
=
Y 2 + + 1 -

5 t =

u = 1 + 7x
dr =unde just
du = 7dx
= du = dx
= (du t . u") = u = 1 + va - = n - 1 u(a) = 1 + 5 = 1

u(1) = 1 + 7(1) = S = du = dr = 2 du =dxu(l)

25
= 1+ y = 2

u() = 1 + 7() = 1
= (16-1) = 2 (n- 1) du = dx

* The substitution rule for definite integrals could be used to

simplify the calculation of integrals of functions that possess symmetry properties .

if f( x) F(x) =
if f(x) =
-
f(x)

=> Fis even => F is odd

D retanel + de
②7 di

f( x) =
-
( - x)+ ( - x)"tam( -
x) = - x x"tanx
- fx) = 7( x)+ 1
-
= 7x + 1 = f(x) = f is even

=
- (+ stanze) = -F(x) = > 7 is odd :
Stu + dr =

2)
37x + 1dx = 2 .
x7+
x)
: +stand =
2[27 + 2 -

s] = 2(130) = 26