Module 6 : Introduction to Sensors
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Module Contents:
Definition, Classification & selection of sensors, Proximity sensors: Inductive &
Capacitive, Use of proximity sensor as accelerometer and vibration sensor, Flow
Sensors: Ultrasonic & Laser, Level Sensors: Ultrasonic & Capacitive.
Sensor
❑ A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input from the physical environment.
❑ The specific input could be light, heat, motion, moisture, pressure, or any other environmental phenomena.
❑ Modern-day sensors play a vital role in applications spanning from consumer electronics and home appliances to
industrial manufacturing and healthcare.
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❑ Example of a sensor : LDR or a Light Dependent Resistor.
❑ It is a device, whose resistance varies according to intensity of light .
❑ When the light falling on an LDR is more, its resistance becomes very less and when the light is less, well, the
resistance of the LDR becomes very high.
Types and Classification of Sensor
Types of Sensors
❑ Direct: A sensor that can convert a non-electrical stimulus into an electrical signal with intermediate stages,
e.g. Thermocouple (temperature to voltage)
❑ Indirect: A sensor that multiple conversion steps to transform the measured signal into an electrical signal,
Example a fiber-optic displacement sensor (Light Current photons current )
Classification of Sensors :
❖ Based on physical laws or convenient distinguishing property
1. Active and Passive sensors
• Active Sensors: A sensor that requires external power to operate, e.g. carbon microphone, thermistors, strain
gauges, capacitive and inductive sensors, etc. The active sensor is also called as parametric sensor (output is a
function of a parameter- like resistance).
• Passive Sensors: It generates its own electric signal and does not require a power source, e.g. thermocouples,
magnetic microphones, piezoelectric sensors, photodiode. Also called as self-generating sensors
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2. Contact and non-contact sensors
• Contact sensor: A sensor that requires physical contact with the stimulus, e.g. strain gauges, temperature sensors
• Non-contact sensor: It requires no physical contact, e.g. most optical and magnetic sensors, infrared
thermometers, etc
Types and Classification of Sensor(Cont’d)
3. Absolute and relative sensors:
• Absolute sensor: A sensor that reacts to a stimulus on an absolute scale, such as thermistors, strain gauges, etc.,
(thermistor always reads the absolute temperature)
• Relative scale: The stimulus is sensed relative to a fixed or variable reference, for example thermocouple
measures the temperature difference; pressure is often measured relative to atmospheric pressure
4. Classification based on broad area of detection: Electric sensors, Magnetic, Electromagnetic, Acoustic,
Chemical, Optical, Heat, Temperature, Mechanical, Radiation, Biological etc.
5. Classification based on physical law: Photoelectric, Magnetoelectric, Thermoelectric, Photoconductive,
Photomagnetic, Thermomagnetic, Thermooptic, Electrochermical, Magnetoresistive, Photoelastic etc.
6. Classification based on Specification: Accuracy, sensitivity, Stability, response time, hysteresis, Frequency
response, input, resolution, linearity, hardness, cost, size, weight, conduction materials, temperature etc.
7. Classification as per Application: Agriculture, Automotive, Civil engineering and construction, Domestic
appliances, Commerce, Finance Environment, Meteorology, security, Energy, Information and
MODULE - 6 Telecommunication, Health and medicine, Marine, Military and Space, Recreation and toys, Scientific
measurement, Manufacturing and Transportation and many more
Selection Criteria of Sensor
While comparing the Sensor, consider the following parameters:
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1. Range: Difference between Maximum and Minimum value which can be sensed by the sensor. What is the
minimum value you need to sense? What is the maximum value you need to sense?
2. Resolution: The smallest change which can be sensed by the sensor. High is good but not always. If it is too
high, it would pickup even very minute fluctuations which would then require additional processing.
Selection Criteria of Sensor (Cont’d)
3. Sensitivity: Ratio of change in output to a unit change in the input. Again, high is good, but too high
could be a problem. Also, higher the sensitivity, more will be the cost in most cases.
4. Error: Difference between the Measured Value and True Value. We want this value to be low. All
sensors have a margin of error. Does you application allow you to have that margin of error?
5. Accuracy: It is inversely proportional to Error, i.e. How close the sensor reading is to the True Value.
(Should be high).
6. Precision: Ability to give/reproduce accurate value repeatedly. If a sensor is giving different values
for the same physical conditions, it is not a good choice.
7. Response Time: Time lag between the Input and Output. (Should be Minimum)
8. Signal-to-noise Ratio: Ratio between the magnitude of the signal and the noise at the output.
MODULE - 6 9. Calibration: As sensors need frequent calibration, so it should be easy to calibrate.
10. Cost: It shouldn’t be expensive.
Selection Criteria of Sensor (Cont’d)
11. Nature of Output: Do we need Analog output or Digital output, it should be clear.
12. Environment: It is one of the most important parameters because not all sensors can work in
extreme conditions. Sensors can get affected due to the non-ideal conditions(like temperature,
humidity, etc.) which may affect the output of the sensor.
13. Flexibility: We check whether the sensor can adapt to changes in the product with a simple OTA.
14. Interfacing: It should be compatible to use with a wide range of [Link] sensors need an
external power source to produce an output, so it important to provide the power source, so that
additional errors aren’t introduced.
15. Size and Weight: Sensors should be compact and lightweight
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Proximity Sensor
Proximity sensors play a crucial role in modern industries, enabling automation, safety, and efficiency in various
applications. These sensors are designed to detect the presence or absence of objects within a certain range without
physical contact.
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Inductive Proximity Sensor
Inductive proximity sensors are widely used in industrial
environments for their robustness and reliability. They
operate on the principle of electromagnetic induction. When
an object approaches the sensor's electromagnetic field, it
induces eddy currents, leading to a change in the sensor's
output.
Applications of Inductive Proximity Sensors
Inductive proximity switches are effective in detecting
metal objects and are commonly employed in position
sensing, object detection, collision detection, speed sensing
and automated machinery. They are also used in industrial
manufacturing facilities to detect the presence of metallic
objects.
Examples of Inductive Proximity Sensors
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If we look at Inductive proximity sensors the most popular
ones are the LJ12A3-4-Z/BX, PR12-DN, and SN04-N.
Capacitive Proximity Sensor
Capacitive proximity sensors are versatile and can detect a
wide range of materials, including conductive and non-
conductive substances. These sensors consist of two plates
separated by a dielectric material. When an object enters the
sensor's electrical field, it alters the capacitance between the
plates, triggering a change in the output signal.
Applications of Capacitive Proximity Sensors
Capacitive proximity switches are commonly used in
applications such as level sensing, liquid detection, and object
proximity detection in harsh environments. they are widely used
in automatic pump control systems to detect water levels.
Examples of Capacitive Proximity Sensors
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The most popular capacitive proximity sensors in the market are
CR18-8DN, CR30-15AO, M12, M18, and M30.
Comparison between Inductive & Capacitive Proximity Sensor
Sensor
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Use of proximity sensor as accelerometer and vibration sensor
[Link]
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Flow Sensors: Ultrasonic & Laser
A flow sensor is a device that measures the rate at which a liquid or gas is flowing through a pipe
or system. It's also known as a flow meter. Flow sensors are crucial in many applications,
including industrial processes, HVAC systems, and medical equipment.
Ultrasonic flow meters, which are a type of volumetric flow meter, are non-intrusive flow
sensors that use acoustic vibrations to measure the flow rate of a liquid. There are two
types, Doppler and transit time.
Ultrasonic meters are ideal for automated wastewater applications or any dirty liquid which is
conductive or water based – but will generally not work with distilled water or drinking water.
These flow meters are also ideal for applications where low pressure drop, chemical
compatibility, and low maintenance are all requirements.
[Link]
ultrasonic-flow-meters/
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Flow Sensors: Laser
[Link]
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Level Sensors: Ultrasonic & Capacitive
❑ Level sensors are devices that are used to measure the substances, such as water, oil, slurries, dust particles, solids,
etc. The medium which is to be measured could be stored in a vessel, bins, grain store, etc. The liquid level is the
position of a liquid surface above or below a reference point.
❑ These sensors are also capable to detect the powder levels and also the interface between the liquids. Level sensors
are required for many industrial applications and they are expected in fluid systems.
❑ The liquid which is to be measured could be in a tank or it would be in natural forms like a lake or river.
❑ The variation in the fluid level could be sensed by the level sensor and it would transmit this info to the operator.
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Capacitive Level Sensor
The capacitance method of liquid level measurement or Capacitance Level Sensor operates on the principle of parallel
plate capacitor, which can be stated as the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor varies or changes if the area or
dielectric constant of it changes. Operation: Capacitive sensors typically consist of
two electrodes—one fixed and one movable. As the
liquid level changes, the distance between the
electrodes changes, which in turn changes the
capacitance.
This change is then converted into a signal that can
be read by the control system.
Advantages:
1. High Accuracy and Precision: Capacitive sensors
can provide highly accurate measurements.
2. No-Moving-Parts Design: This makes them
durable and reliable.
3. Suitable for Measuring Liquids with Varying
Dielectric Constants: They are ideal for
MODULE - 6 Applications: Capacitive sensors are widely used in
measuring liquids with different dielectric
pharmaceuticals, food and beverage, and petrochemical constants, such as water, oil, and chemicals.
industries. They are particularly suitable for monitoring
levels in tanks and vessels where the liquid properties vary.
Disadvantages :
[Link] performance will be affected by the change in temperature.
[Link] connection and mounting of metal tank with the meter should be proper, otherwise some errors
may occur.
Ultrasonic Level Sensor
Working Principle of Capacitance Level Sensor: An ultrasonic level sensor is a device that measures the
level of a liquid or solid within a container by using ultrasonic waves. These sensors operate by emitting
ultrasonic pulses and measuring the time it takes for the pulses to reflect off the surface and return to the
sensor. The time delay is then used to calculate the distance to the surface, which corresponds to the level of
the material.
Types of Ultrasonic Level Sensors
[Link] Level Sensors: These sensors provide real-time, continuous measurements of the material level,
ideal for applications requiring ongoing monitoring.
[Link] Level Sensors: These sensors detect whether the material level is above or below a specific point,
useful for high or low-level alarms.
Ultrasonic level sensors operate based on the principle of time-of-flight measurement.
Step-by-step explanation of their working mechanism:
[Link]: The sensor emits a short burst of ultrasonic waves towards the material surface.
[Link]: The ultrasonic waves travel through the air to the material surface.
[Link]: The waves hit the surface and are reflected back towards the sensor.
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[Link]: The sensor receives the reflected waves.
[Link]: The sensor calculates the time it took for the waves to travel to the surface and back,
then uses this information to determine the distance to the surface and thus the material level.
Ultrasonic Level Sensor
Advantages:
•Non-invasive (non-contact)
•No moving parts
•Compact and reliable
•Unaffected by material properties
•Self-cleaning
Disadvantages:
•Relatively expensive
•Environmental factors may impact performance
Applications:
• Water and Wastewater Management: Ultrasonic level sensors are widely used in water and wastewater management to
monitor the levels of water in tanks, reservoirs, and treatment plants. They help ensure optimal water usage and efficient
operation of water treatment processes.
• Chemical and Pharmaceutical Industries: In the chemical and pharmaceutical industries, accurate level measurement is
critical for maintaining process control and ensuring safety. Ultrasonic level (UL)sensors provide reliable measurements
of liquid levels in tanks and reactors, preventing overflows and ensuring proper dosing.
MODULE - 6• Food and Beverage Industry: Ultrasonic level sensors are used in the food and beverage industry to monitor the levels of
liquids, powders, and granular materials in storage tanks and silos. Their non-contact measurement capability makes them
ideal for use with food products, as they do not contaminate the materials.
• Oil and Gas Industry: In the oil and gas industry, ultrasonic level sensors are employed to monitor the levels of liquids in
storage tanks and pipelines. They provide accurate and reliable measurements even in harsh environmental conditions.
• Agriculture: Ultrasonic level sensors are used in agriculture to monitor the levels of water, fertilizers, and pesticides in
tanks and containers. They help in optimizing the usage of resources and ensuring efficient farming operations.