Environmental Studies

UNIT-1

Meaning and Functions of Environment

Environment Meaning :
Environment can be defined as a sum total of all the living and non-living elements
and their effects that influence human life. While all living or biotic elements are
animals, plants, forests, fisheries, and birds, non-living or abiotic elements include
water, land, sunlight, rocks, and air.

Environment literally means Surrounding in which we are living. Environment

includes all those things on which we are directly or indirectly dependent for our
survival, whether it is living component like animals, plants or non living
component like soil, air & water.

Environmental Protection Act (1986) defined “Environment as the sum total of

water, air and land, their interrelationship among themselves and with the human
beings, other living beings.

Environment Functions:

(1) Provides the supply of resources

 The environment offers resources for production.

 It includes both renewable and non-renewable resources.
 Examples: Wood for furniture, soil, land, etc.
(2) Sustains life

 The environment includes the sun, soil, water, and air, which are
essential for human life.
 It sustains life by providing genetic and biodiversity.
(3) Assimilates waste

 Production and consumption activities generate waste.

 This occurs mostly in the form of garbage.
 The environment helps in getting rid of the garbage.
(4) Enhances the quality of life

 The environment enhances the quality of life.

 Human beings enjoy the beauty of nature that includes rivers, mountains,
deserts, etc.
 These add to the quality of life.
Importance of environmental studies:
Some important features that make environmental studies significant are as
follows:

1. Environmental studies provide basic knowledge of the environment to all

individuals and help in understanding present environmental projects.
2. It helps us to know a more sustainable way of living and provides the
necessary skills to solve environmental problems.
3. It helps us to use natural resources more efficiently.
4. The significance of environmental concerns such as global warming, ozone
depletion, acid rain, marine pollution, and biodiversity are widely
acknowledged as not limited to specific countries but rather having global
implications.
5. With the increase in population, there is an increase in the use of natural
resources including land. With this, the soil health problems like soil
salinity, deficiency in micronutrients, etc., have been recognized by
agricultural experts. So, it is important to study the land environment of
nature.

Scope of Environmental Studies:

Atmosphere: The atmosphere creates a unique protective layer, around 100 km

thick, enclosing the Earth. This blanket of gases protects the Earth’s surface from
the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun and sustains life. Additionally, it plays a
crucial role in regulating the planet’s temperature and preventing it from getting
too hot or too cold. The atmosphere also safeguards the Earth from the harsh
conditions of outer space. The composition of the atmosphere includes nitrogen
and oxygen, along with argon, carbon dioxide, and trace gases.

HYDROSPHERE: The hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources,

including the water on the surface of the earth, the water in the air, and the water
under the surface of the earth, I.e., oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, reservoirs,
polar icecaps, glaciers, and groundwater. Of 100% of the earth’s water supply,
97% is in the oceans, 2% is locked on in polar icecaps and glaciers, and the
remaining 1% is fresh surface water which is used for human consumption and
other purposes.
Lithosphere: The uppermost part of the earth’s crust, which includes soils and
their particles like rocks, metals, etc., is known as lithosphere.

Biosphere: The biosphere indicates the domain of living organisms and their
connection with the environment, viz., atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.

Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies

Environmental Studies is inherently multidisciplinary, drawing from various fields

to understand the interactions between humans and the natural environment. The
complexity of environmental problems requires a holistic approach that taps into a
wide range of disciplines.

Let's delve into the multidisciplinary nature of Environmental Studies:

Natural Sciences:

 Biology: Helps in understanding biodiversity, ecosystem functions, and the

impact of human actions on various species.
 Chemistry: Deals with pollution, the biochemical processes in the
environment, and the impact of chemicals on health and ecosystems.
 Geology & Geophysics: Studies the earth, soil, and processes such as
erosion, landslides, and earthquakes.
 Atmospheric Sciences: Concerned with climate change, weather patterns,
and air pollution.

Social Sciences & Humanities:

 Anthropology: Offers insights into how different cultures interact with and
perceive the environment.
 Sociology: Investigates the societal aspects of environmental issues, such as
environmental justice and societal responses to environmental challenges.
 Economics: Assesses the economic implications of environmental policies,
the concept of natural capital, and the economic values of ecosystem
services.
 History: Provides context on past human-environment interactions, helping
us understand long-term trends and consequences.
  Philosophy & Ethics: Explores the moral and philosophical dimensions of
environmental issues, such as our responsibility to future generations.

Applied Disciplines:

 Environmental Engineering: Designs solutions to combat pollution,

manage waste, and create sustainable infrastructure.
 Agriculture & Forestry: Focuses on sustainable practices to produce food
and timber without degrading ecosystems.
 Urban Planning: Addresses the environmental challenges of urbanization
like managing urban sprawl, public transportation, and green spaces.
 Public Health: Examines the impact of environmental factors, like pollution
or climate change, on human health.

Policy and Management:

 Environmental Policy: Looks at how societies govern and manage

environmental resources, and the creation and implementation of
environmental laws.
 Environmental Management: Focuses on practical strategies to manage
natural resources sustainably and mitigate environmental impacts.

Informatics and Technology:

 Geographical Information Systems (GIS) & Remote Sensing: Tools used

for mapping and analyzing environmental patterns.
 Environmental Modelling: Uses computer models to predict environmental
changes or to understand complex systems.

Education & Communication:

 Environmental Education: Equips individuals with the knowledge and

skills to address environmental challenges.
 Environmental Communication: Involves crafting messages about
environmental issues for various audiences, using media and other
platforms.
Law:

 Environmental Law: Studies the legal frameworks that govern human-

environment interactions.

These various disciplines work together to give a comprehensive view of the

environment and the challenges it faces. By adopting a multidisciplinary approach,
Environmental Studies provides the tools to address these challenges in an
integrated manner, making it better suited to finding sustainable solutions for the
[Link] of Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies:

Environmental studies is significant because they assist us in understanding our

environment and natural events. Several considerations underline the importance
of environmental studies' interdisciplinary character. These are their names:

 It aids in gathering knowledge regarding current environmental issues. It

provides us with the information and skills needed to address environmental
issues such as pollution, global warming, and climate change.
 It helps to maintain ecological balance by giving a fundamental
understanding of environmental systems and processes.
 It tells us about environmental changes induced by man-made factors.
 It also teaches us how to analyse diverse environmental systems and the
effects of human activity on the environment.
 Its objective is to protect and preserve biodiversity. It introduces us to
various flora and animal species. It provides us with several strategies for
maintaining and protecting them.
 It brings our attention to our environmental duties. It also notifies us about
several environmental issues that must be handled as soon as possible.
 Environmental Studies is a multidisciplinary subject that covers a wide
range of themes, including energy conservation, hazardous emissions, water
conservation, rubbish disposal, rising global temperatures, and many more.
What is Ecology?

Ecology is a branch of science, including human science, population, community,

ecosystem and biosphere. Ecology is the study of organisms, the environment and
how the organisms interact with each other and their environment. It is studied at
various levels, such as organism, population, community, biosphere and
ecosystem.

An ecologist’s primary goal is to improve their understanding of life processes,

adaptations and habitats, interactions and biodiversity of organisms

Types of Ecology

Global Ecology
It deals with interactions among earth’s ecosystems, land, atmosphere and oceans.
It helps to understand the large-scale interactions and their influence on the planet.

Landscape Ecology
It deals with the exchange of energy, materials, organisms and other products of
ecosystems. Landscape ecology throws light on the role of human impacts on the
landscape structures and functions.

Ecosystem Ecology
It deals with the entire ecosystem, including the study of living and non-living
components and their relationship with the environment. This science researches
how ecosystems work, their interactions, etc.

Community Ecology
It deals with how community structure is modified by interactions among living
organisms. Ecology community is made up of two or more populations of different
species living in a particular geographic area.

Population Ecology
It deals with factors that alter and impact the genetic composition and the size of
the population of organisms. Ecologists are interested in fluctuations in the size of
a population, the growth of a population and any other interactions with the
population.
Importance of Ecology

Conservation of Environment
Ecology helps us to understand how our actions affect the environment. It shows
the individuals the extent of damage we cause to the environment

Resource Allocation
With the knowledge of ecology, we are able to know which resources are
necessary for the survival of different organisms. Lack of ecological knowledge
has led to scarcity and deprivation of these resources, leading to competition.

Energy Conservation
All organisms require energy for their growth and development. Lack of ecological
understanding leads to the over-exploitation of energy resources such as light,
nutrition and radiation, leading to its depletion.

Eco-Friendliness
Ecology encourages harmonious living within the species and the adoption of a
lifestyle that protects the ecology of life.
What is an Ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology where the living
organisms interact with each other and the surrounding environment. In other
words, an ecosystem is a chain of interactions between organisms and their
environment. The term “Ecosystem” was first coined by [Link], an English
botanist, in 1935.

Structure of the Ecosystem

Biotic Components

Biotic components refer to all living components in an ecosystem. Based on

nutrition, biotic components can be categorised into autotrophs, heterotrophs
and saprotrophs (or decomposers).

 Producers include all autotrophs such as plants. They are called autotrophs
as they can produce food through the process of photosynthesis.
Consequently, all other organisms higher up on the food chain rely on
producers for food.
 Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms
for food. Consumers are further classified into primary consumers,
secondary consumers and tertiary consumers.

 Primary consumers are always herbivores as they rely on producers

for food.
 Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy.
They can either be carnivores or omnivores.
  Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary
consumers for food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores or
omnivores.
 Decomposers include saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They
directly thrive on the dead and decaying organic matter.
Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as they help in recycling
nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air,
water, soil, minerals, sunlight, temperature, nutrients, wind, etc.

Functions of Ecosystem
The functions of the ecosystem are as follows:

1. It regulates the essential ecological processes, supports life systems

and renders stability.
2. It is also responsible for the cycling of nutrients between biotic and
abiotic components.
3. It maintains a balance among the various trophic levels in the
ecosystem.
4. It cycles the minerals through the biosphere.
5. The abiotic components help in the synthesis of organic components
that involve the exchange of energy.

Types of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean,
spanning thousands of miles. There are two types of ecosystem:

 Terrestrial Ecosystem
 Aquatic Ecosystem

Terrestrial Ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystems are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different
types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones. They
are as follows:

1. Forest Ecosystem
2. Grassland Ecosystem
3. Tundra Ecosystem
4. Desert Ecosystem
Forest Ecosystem
A forest ecosystem consists of several plants, particularly trees, animals and
microorganisms that live in coordination with the abiotic factors of the
environment. Forests help in maintaining the temperature of the earth and are the
major carbon sink.

Grassland Ecosystem
In a grassland ecosystem, the vegetation is dominated by grasses and herbs.
Temperate grasslands and tropical or savanna grasslands are examples of grassland
ecosystems.

Tundra Ecosystem
Tundra ecosystems are devoid of trees and are found in cold climates or where
rainfall is scarce. These are covered with snow for most of the year. Tundra type of
ecosystem is found in the Arctic or mountain tops.

Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are found throughout the world. These are regions with little rainfall and
scarce vegetation. The days are hot, and the nights are cold.

Aquatic Ecosystem
Aquatic ecosystems are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be
further divided into two types, namely:
 1. Freshwater Ecosystem
2. Marine Ecosystem
Freshwater Ecosystem
The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds,
rivers, streams and wetlands. These have no salt content in contrast with the marine
ecosystem.

Marine Ecosystem
The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt
content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

Important Ecological Concepts

1. Food Chain
The sun is the ultimate source of energy on earth. It provides the energy required
for all plant life. The plants utilise this energy for the process of photosynthesis,
which is used to synthesise their food.

During this biological process, light energy is converted into chemical energy and
is passed on through successive trophic levels. The flow of energy from a
producer, to a consumer and eventually, to an apex predator or a detritivore is
called the food chain.

2. Ecological Pyramids
An ecological pyramid is the graphical representation of the number, energy, and
biomass of the successive trophic levels of an ecosystem. Charles Elton was the
first ecologist to describe the ecological pyramid and its principals in 1927.
3. Food Web

Food web is a network of interconnected food chains. It comprises all the food
chains within a single ecosystem. It helps in understanding that plants lay the
foundation of all the food chains. In a marine environment, phytoplankton forms
the primary producer.
What Is Ecological Succession?

Ecological succession is a series of changes that occur in an ecological community

over time.”

Ecological succession is the steady and gradual change in a species of a given area
with respect to the changing environment. It is a predictable change and is an
inevitable process of nature as all the biotic components have to keep up with the
changes in our environment.

The ultimate aim of this process is to reach equilibrium in the ecosystem. The
community that achieves this aim is called a climax community. In an attempt to
reach this equilibrium, some species increase in number while some others
decrease.

In an area, the sequence of communities that undergo changes is called sere. Thus,
each community that changes is called a seral stage or seral community.

All the communities that we observe today around us have undergone succession
over a period of time since their existence. Thus, we can say that evolution is a
process that has taken place simultaneously with that of ecological succession.
Also, the initiation of life on earth can be considered to be a result of this
succession process.

Types of Ecological Succession

[Link] succession happens when a new patch of land is created or exposed for
the first time. This can happen, for example, when lava cools and creates new
rocks, or when a glacier retreats and exposes rocks without any soil. During
primary succession, organisms must start from scratch. First, lichens might attach
themselves to rocks, and a few small plants able to live without much soil might
appear. These are known as “pioneer species.”

Primary Succession

Primary succession is the succession that starts in lifeless areas such as the regions
devoid of soil or the areas where the soil is unable to sustain life.

When the planet was first formed there was no soil on earth. The earth was only
made up of rocks. These rocks were broken down by microorganisms and eroded
to form soil. The soil then becomes the foundation of plant life. These plants help
in the survival of different animals and progress from primary succession to the
climax community.

If this primary ecosystem is destroyed, secondary succession takes place

2. Secondary Succession

Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem gets destroyed. For eg.,
a climax community gets destroyed by fire. It gets recolonized after the
destruction. This is known as secondary ecological succession. Small plants
emerge first, followed by larger plants.

The tall trees block the sunlight and change the structure of the organisms below
the canopy. Finally, the climax community arrives.

Secondary succession happens when a climax community or intermediate

community is impacted by a disturbance. This restarts the cycle of succession, but
not back to the beginning—soil and nutrients are still present.

Characteristics of Ecological Succession

 It results from the disparity in the physical atmosphere of the community.

 It is a systematic procedure of community development.

 It involves variations in species structure and it increases the diversity of

species.

 Nutrient variation regulates the settlement of new communities.

 Succession operates in a stabilized ecosystem

Ecosystem Services
The earth is home to millions of species. Every organism depends on one or
another organism for energy, survival, and other life processes. This dependence
of organisms on one another and their surroundings forge an interacting system
called ecosystems. The interactions among different components of ecosystems are
fundamental to a well-defined environment.
As a part of an ecosystem, humans derive lots of benefits from the biotic and
abiotic components. These benefits are collectively termed as ecosystem services.
Life and biodiversity on earth depend on these services.

Definition

Ecosystem services refer to the many and varied benefits that humans freely gain
from the natural environment and from properly-functioning ecosystems. These
services are indispensable to our well-being, livelihood, and survival. Ecosystem
services are generally grouped into four broad categories:

Types of Ecosystem Services

1. Provisioning Services
This includes the products/raw materials or energy outputs like food, water,
medicines and other resources from ecosystems. Ecosystems are a source of food,
water, medicines, wood, biofuels, etc. Also, they provide conditions for these
resources to grow.

2. Regulating Services
This includes the services which regulate the ecological balance. For example,
terrestrial environs like forest purify and regulates air quality, prevent soil erosion,
and control greenhouse gases. Biotic components such as birds, rats, frogs, act as
natural controllers and thus help in pest and disease control. Hence, ecosystems act
as regulators.

3. Supporting services
Supporting services form the basis for other services. They provide habitat for
different life forms, retain biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and other services for
supporting life on the earth.

4. Cultural services
It includes tourism; provides recreational, aesthetic, cultural and spiritual services,
etc. Most natural elements such as landscapes, mountains, caves, are used as a
place for cultural and artistic purposes. Even a few of them are considered sacred.
Moreover, ecosystems provide enormous economic benefits in the name of
tourism.

Energy flow in ecosystems

Energy flow in ecosystems refers to the transfer of energy through various
components of the ecological system. It's a fundamental concept in ecology, which
emphasizes the interconnectedness of all living and non-living entities within a
particular environment. Let's break down the concept further:

Source of Energy: The primary source of energy for most ecosystems on Earth is
the sun. Solar energy is captured by plants and certain types of bacteria and algae
through the process of photosynthesis, where it is converted into chemical energy
stored as glucose and other organic molecules.

 Trophic Levels: Energy flows through different levels in an ecosystem,

which are termed as trophic levels. These include:
 Primary producers (1st trophic level): Typically plants or algae that produce
their own food through photosynthesis.
 Primary consumers (2nd trophic level): Herbivores that eat the primary
producers.
 Secondary consumers (3rd trophic level): Carnivores that eat the primary
consumers.
 Tertiary consumers (4th trophic level): Carnivores that eat secondary
consumers.

Further levels can exist depending on the ecosystem.

Energy Transfer: As energy moves up the trophic levels, from primary producers
to higher level consumers, only a fraction (typically about 10%) of the energy from
one level is transferred to the next. The rest is lost to the environment, largely as
heat, due to metabolic processes like respiration, movement, and reproduction.

Food Chains and Food Webs: The transfer of energy can be represented using
food chains and more complexly through food webs. A food chain is a linear
representation of how energy flows from one organism to the next. A food web, on
the other hand, is a more holistic view showing how multiple food chains intersect
and interact within an ecosystem.
Decomposers: These are organisms like fungi and bacteria that break down dead
organic material, returning nutrients to the soil and ensuring the continued flow of
energy and cycling of matter in the ecosystem.

Energy Pyramid: This is a graphical representation of energy flow in an

ecosystem. It demonstrates the reduction in energy as you move up trophic levels.
The base of the pyramid consists of the primary producers, and the apex represents
the apex predators. Each subsequent level of the pyramid has less available energy
than the level below it.

In essence, the concept of energy flow in ecosystems emphasizes that energy is

neither created nor destroyed but rather transferred and transformed as it moves
through the trophic levels. This understanding underscores the importance of each
organism's role in the broader ecological context and the delicate balance that
sustains life on Earth.

Human Environmental Interaction

Human Environmental Interaction (HEI) is one of the five key themes in

geography, and it refers to the ways in which humans affect the environment and
how the environment, in turn, affects humans. It's a dynamic and intricate
relationship that influences our daily lives, cultural habits, economic practices, and
societal development. This relationship is shaped by both our intentional and
unintentional actions, and it has profound implications for sustainability, health,
and the quality of life.

Here are some concepts and details that help explain the meaning of Human
Environmental Interaction:

1. Modification of the Environment: Humans often modify the environment to

make it more suitable for their specific needs. This can range from simple
modifications, such as building homes, to more complex changes, like creating
dams for hydroelectric power.

2. Adaptation to the Environment: Over time, humans have learned to adapt to

different environmental conditions. For example, in cold climates, people might
wear heavy clothing and build houses with good insulation, while in desert regions,
they might build homes that are designed to stay cool and collect scarce rainwater.

3. Dependence on the Environment: Humans rely on the environment for

fundamental resources such as water, food, and materials for shelter and clothing.
For instance, we depend on trees for wood, rivers and lakes for water, and fertile
soil for agriculture.

4. Positive Interactions: Some human activities can benefit the environment. For
example, reforestation projects, conservation efforts, and sustainable farming
practices can enhance the environment and ensure resources for future generations.

5. Negative Interactions: Unfortunately, many human activities can harm the

environment. Deforestation, pollution (air, water, soil), and overfishing are just a
few examples of how humans can negatively impact the environment.

[Link] Advancements: The development and use of technology have

played a significant role in shaping HEI. From the advent of agriculture (changing
from hunter-gatherer societies to settled farming communities) to the Industrial
Revolution and our current digital age, technology alters how we interact with our
surroundings.

Human Environmental Interaction (HEI) give us insights into the multifaceted

relationships and the numerous dimensions it encompasses:

1. Economic Impacts: Economic activities, especially in industries like mining,

agriculture, and manufacturing, have direct implications on the environment. The
extraction of natural resources often disrupts ecosystems, while industrial
processes can result in pollution. Economic decisions, such as choosing to invest in
renewable energy over fossil fuels, play a crucial role in HEI.

2. Urbanization: As populations grow and cities expand, natural landscapes are

often replaced by concrete structures. This affects local ecosystems, animal
habitats, and even the local climate. Urban heat islands – areas in cities that are
significantly warmer than their surrounding rural areas – are a direct result of
urbanization.

3. Agricultural Practices: The manner in which we grow food shapes the land
and impacts the soil, water, and even the air. Practices like monoculture can
deplete the soil of nutrients and make areas more susceptible to pests, requiring
more pesticides. Conversely, sustainable practices like crop rotation and organic
farming have a lesser environmental impact.

4. Climate Change and Feedback: Human activities, especially the burning of

fossil fuels, release vast amounts of greenhouse gases, contributing to global
warming. This, in turn, affects sea levels, weather patterns, and global ecosystems.
As climate change intensifies, human societies must adapt, potentially leading to
migrations, changes in farming practices, and even socio-political shifts.

5. Biodiversity Loss: Activities like deforestation, pollution, and urbanization

contribute to habitat destruction, leading to a decline in biodiversity. This loss is
not just about species; it affects human health, economies, and food security.

6. Waste Management: How societies dispose of their waste has major

environmental implications