CHAPTER 8

8.1 Surface Finish Measurement – Terminology

Introduction
Surface finish refers to the quality and texture of a machined surface.

It affects:

✔ Friction
✔ Wear
✔ Lubrication
✔ Appearance
✔ Fatigue strength

Surface finish is measured in terms of surface roughness.

Basic Surface Texture Terms

Surface texture consists of:

1. Roughness

2. Waviness

3. Lay

4. Flaws

Important Terminology

1. Surface Roughness
Small, closely spaced irregularities on a surface.

Caused by:

 Cutting tool marks

 Feed marks

 Abrasive action

Measured in micrometers (µm).

2. Waviness
Larger irregularities spaced widely apart.

Caused by:

 Machine vibration

 Tool deflection

 Warping

3. Lay
Lay is the direction of the predominant surface pattern produced by a manufacturing process.
It indicates the direction of tool marks and helps in:

✔ Selecting proper mating direction

✔ Reducing wear
✔ Improving lubrication
✔ Ensuring proper sealing

Lay is shown in engineering drawings by standard symbols.

Five Common Types of Lay Direction

1. Parallel Lay (—)

Description:

Surface irregularities run parallel to each other.

Produced by:

 Shaping

 Planning

 Turning (longitudinal feed)

Interpretation:

Tool moves in one direction producing straight, parallel marks.

Application:

Used where sliding motion is parallel to lay direction.

2. Perpendicular Lay (⊥)

Description:
Surface marks are perpendicular to a reference line.

Produced by:

 Facing operation

 End milling

Interpretation:

Tool feed direction is perpendicular to the axis.

Application:

Suitable when sliding motion is across tool marks.

3. Cross Lay (X)

Description:

Surface marks intersect each other forming a criss-cross pattern.

Produced by:

 Grinding
 Honing

Interpretation:

Multiple cutting directions create intersecting marks.

Application:
Provides good oil retention and lubrication.

4. Circular Lay (C)

Description:

Marks follow circular pattern around a center.

Produced by:

 Facing on lathe

 Cylindrical grinding

Interpretation:

Tool rotates about a fixed center producing circular marks.

Application:
Common in rotating components.

5. Radial Lay (R)

Description:

Surface marks extend radially outward from center.

Produced by:

 Milling

 Surface grinding (certain operations)

Interpretation:

Tool motion radiates outward.

Application:

Used in brake discs and clutch plates

4. Flaws
Irregular defects such as:
1. Scratches

Description:
Narrow, elongated marks on the surface.

Causes:
 Improper handling

 Hard particles between tool and work

 Abrasive contamination

Effect:
 Increases friction

 Causes leakage in sealing surfaces

2. Cracks

Description:
Small fractures on surface.

Causes:
 Thermal stresses

 Improper heat treatment

 Excessive cutting force

Effect:
 Reduces fatigue strength

 May cause sudden failure

3. Pits
Description:
Small holes or depressions on surface.

Causes:
 Corrosion

 Gas entrapment in casting

 Material defects
Effect:
 Weakens surface

 Poor appearance

4. Blow Holes

Description:
Void spaces or cavities.

Causes:
 Gas entrapment during casting

Effect:
 Structural weakness

 Reduced load carrying capacity

5. Inclusions

Description:
Foreign material trapped inside metal.

Causes:
 Poor raw material quality

Effect:
 Stress concentration

 Crack initiation

6. Burrs

Description:
Raised edges after machining.

Causes:
 Improper cutting parameters

 Tool wear

Effect:
 Assembly problems
  Risk of injur

8.2 Primary & Secondary Texture, CLA, RMS and Ra Value

Surface texture is the combination of small irregularities present on a machined surface.

It is mainly classified into:

1. Primary texture

2. Secondary texture

Surface roughness is quantitatively expressed by parameters like:

 CLA

 RMS

 Ra

Primary and Secondary Texture

Primary Texture (Roughness)

Definition:
Primary texture consists of fine, closely spaced irregularities on a surface.

These are also called roughness.

Causes:

✔ Tool feed marks

✔ Cutting action
✔ Abrasive particles

Characteristics:
 Small wavelength

 Closely spaced

 Regular pattern

Example:
Turning marks on a shaft.
Secondary Texture (Waviness)
Definition:
Secondary texture consists of widely spaced irregularities of larger magnitude.

Also called waviness.

Causes:

✔ Machine vibration
✔ Tool deflection
✔ Improper fixturing
✔ Thermal distortion

Characteristics:
 Larger wavelength

 Less frequent

 Uneven surface pattern

Difference Between Primary and Secondary Texture

Primary
Feature Secondary Texture
Texture

Also Called Roughness Waviness

Spacing Closely spaced Widely spaced

Cuttingtool
Cause Vibration/deflection
action

Magnitude Small Larger

Surface Roughness Parameters

1. CLA (Centre Line Average)

Also known as Arithmetic Average (AA).

Definition:
CLA is the arithmetic mean of the absolute values of deviations from the mean line over the
sampling length.

1 𝐿
𝐶𝐿𝐴 = ∫ ∣ 𝑦 ∣ 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 0

Where:

 L = Sampling length

 y = Deviation from mean line

Unit: Micrometer (µm)

Importance:
Most widely used method in industry.

2. Ra Value
Ra is same as CLA.

1 𝐿
𝑅𝑎 = ∫ ∣ 𝑦 ∣ 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 0

It represents average surface roughness.

Interpretation of Ra Values

Ra (µm) Surface Condition

25 Very rough (casting)

6.3 Rough machining

3.2 Normal machining

1.6 Fine turning

0.4 Grinding

0.1 Lapping

Lower Ra → Smoother surface.

3. RMS (Root Mean Square) Value

Definition:
RMS is the square root of the mean of squares of deviations from mean line.

1 𝐿
𝑅𝑀𝑆 = 𝑅𝑞 = √ ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 0

Characteristics:

✔ More sensitive to peaks and valleys

✔ Slightly higher than Ra

Relation:

𝑅𝑀𝑆 ≈ 1.11 × 𝑅𝑎

8.3 Use of Straight Edges and Surface Plates

(Wedge Method and Level Method)
Straight edges and surface plates are used to check:

✔ Flatness
✔ Straightness
✔ Surface accuracy

They are basic precision instruments used in workshops and inspection labs.

Straight Edge

Definition
A straight edge is a precision tool having a perfectly straight edge used to check straightness
and flatness.

Types
1. Knife-edge straight edge

2. I-section straight edge

3. Camel-back straight edge

Material
 Cast iron

 Tool steel

 Granite (high precision)

Surface Plate

Definition
A surface plate is a perfectly flat reference surface used for precision inspection.

Material
 Cast iron
 Granite (most common)

Uses

✔ Checking flatness
✔ Marking work
✔ Supporting precision work

Testing Methods

A) Wedge Method (For Checking Straightness)

Principle
If a wedge of known taper is inserted between a straight edge and surface, the gap can be
measured.
The thickness of wedge at that point indicates deviation.

Instruments Required

✔ Straight edge
✔ Feeler gauges or tapered wedge
✔ Surface plate

🔹 Step-by-Step Procedure

1. Place workpiece on surface plate.

2. Keep straight edge along the surface to be tested.

3. Observe light gap between straight edge and surface.

4. Insert wedge or feeler gauge in the gap.

5. Note thickness of wedge at contact point.

6. Repeat at different points.

7. Plot deviation graph.

Interpretation
 No gap → Surface is straight.

 Variable gap → Surface has deviation.

Advantages

✔ Simple method
✔ Low cost
✔ Suitable for workshop use

Limitations

✖ Not very accurate

✖ Depends on operator skill

B) Level Method (Spirit Level Method)

🔹 Principle

Straightness is measured using precision spirit level by measuring angular deviation.

Deviation is calculated using:

Height difference = 𝐿 × 𝜃

Where:

L = Distance between two points

θ = Angular deviation

Instruments Required

✔ Precision spirit level

✔ Surface plate
✔ Straight edge

🔹 Step-by-Step Procedure

1. Place workpiece on surface plate.

2. Place straight edge on surface.

3. Keep precision spirit level on straight edge.

4. Note bubble reading.

5. Move level step by step along surface.

6. Record readings at equal intervals.

7. Convert angular reading to height difference.

8. Plot error curve.

Interpretation
If bubble remains central → Surface is straight.
If bubble shifts → Surface has deviation.
Advantages

✔ More accurate than wedge method

✔ Suitable for long surfaces
✔ Good for machine bed inspection

Limitations

✖ Requires careful calibration

✖ Sensitive to vibration

Comparison of Wedge and Level Method

Feature Wedge Method Level Method

Accuracy Moderate High

Cost Low Moderate

Skill Required Low High

Long machine
Suitable for Small surfaces
beds

Applications

✔ Checking lathe beds

✔ Machine tool alignment
✔ Surface plate inspection
✔ Quality control

Straight edges and surface plates are fundamental tools in surface testing.

 Wedge method is simple and economical.

 Level method provides higher accuracy.

Both methods ensure proper flatness and straightness, which are essential for precision
manufacturing
8.4 Principle and Operation of Stylus Probe Instruments

Stylus probe instruments are the most widely used devices for measuring surface roughness.

They are also called:

✔ Profilometers
✔ Stylus type surface roughness testers

Example: Talysurf instrument

They measure parameters like:

 Ra (Arithmetic average roughness)

 Rq (RMS value)

 Rz (Ten-point height)

Principle of Stylus Probe Instrument

The instrument works on the principle of:

A sharp stylus moves over the surface and converts vertical surface irregularities into electrical
signals.

When the stylus moves over peaks and valleys:

 It moves up and down.

 This vertical movement is converted into electrical signals.

 The signals are amplified and recorded.

Construction
Main parts:

1. Stylus (diamond tip)

2. Pickup unit (transducer)

3. Traversing mechanism

4. Amplifier
5. Filter circuit
 6. Display / Recorder

🔹 Stylus

 Made of diamond

 Very small radius (about 2–10 microns)

 Light contact force to avoid surface damage

Operation (Step-by-Step)

Step 1: Placement
Workpiece is placed on table.

Step 2: Stylus Traversing

Stylus is gently placed on surface.
It moves horizontally at constant speed.

Step 3: Vertical Movement

As stylus encounters peaks and valleys:

 It moves vertically.

 Movement is proportional to surface irregularities.

Step 4: Signal Conversion

Vertical motion is converted into electrical signal using:

 Inductive pickup

 Piezoelectric sensor

 LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)

Step 5: Amplification
Signal is amplified electronically.

Step 6: Filtering
Waviness is filtered out to measure only roughness.

Step 7: Display
Final value of:
  Ra

 RMS

 Rz

is displayed digitally.

A roughness profile graph may also be printed.

Types of Stylus Instruments

1. Skid type (for workshop use)

2. Skidless type (more accurate)

Skid type uses a reference surface.

Skidless type measures absolute profile.

Advantages

✔ High accuracy
✔ Direct numerical reading
✔ Widely used in industry
✔ Measures different parameters
✔ Portable versions available

Limitations

✖ Stylus may scratch soft surfaces

✖ Not suitable for very rough surfaces
✖ Measures only line profile
✖ Sensitive to vibration

Applications

✔ Inspection of machined parts

✔ Automobile components
✔ Bearing surfaces
✔ Aerospace components
✔ Quality control labs

Stylus probe instruments are the most reliable and commonly used devices for surface
roughness measurement.

They convert mechanical surface irregularities into electrical signals and provide accurate
roughness values.

They play a major role in:

✔ Surface quality control

✔ Process monitoring
✔ Product performance improvement