CET 438 Airport Seaport and Harbour Engineering MODULE 2

MODULE 2
Syllabus: Run Way Design- Wind rose diagram and orientation of runway, wind coverage and
crosswind component, factors affecting runway length, basic runway length, and corrections to
runway length, runway geometrics and runway patterns (configurations). Design of taxiways and
aprons, Terminal area planning, obstructions, approach zone, zoning laws, airport capacity,
airport size (introduction only).

RUNWAY ORIENTATION AND LAYOUT OF RUNWAYS

The number and the orientation of the runway play an important role in the overall arrangement
of the various components of an airport. The number of runway will depend on the volume of air
traffic while its orientation will depend on the direction of the wind and sometimes on the extent
area available for the airport development.
RUNWAY ORIENTATION
It is necessary to collect the following data before deciding the orientation of the runway:
i) Preliminary information required
a. Maps of the area in the vicinity of the airport showing contours at suitable
intervals.
b. Records of direction, force and duration of the wind in the vicinity and fog
characteristics of the area for as long a period as possible.
ii) Head wind
The runway is usually oriented in the direction of the prevailing winds. The head wind
indicates the wind from the opposite direction of the head or nose of the aircraft while it
is landing or taking off. The orientation of the runway along the head wind grants the
following two advantages:
a. During landing, it provides a braking effect and the aircraft comes to a stop in a
short length of the runway.
b. During takeoff, it provides greater lift on the wings of the aircraft.
Thus the landing and takeoff operations take place in a shorter length of the runway due to the
head wind than what it would be, if the landing and takeoff were in the direction of the wind.
iii) Crosswind component
It is not possible get the direction of opposite wind parallel to the centre-line of the
runway length everyday or throughout the year. For some period of the year at least, the
wind may blow making some angle θ with the direction of the centre-line of the runway
length.

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If V kmph is the velocity of the inclined opposing wind, its component Vsinθ which is
normal to the runway length is called the cross wind component. If this component is in
excess, it will interrupt the safe landing and takeoff operations.
The orientation of the runway should therefore be such that this component is kept to a
minimum. For light and medium weight aircrafts, the cross wind component should not
exceed 25kmph.
Limits of cross wind component
 Small Airport- 15kmph
 Medium Airport – 25kmph
 Large Airport – 35kmph
iv) Wind coverage
The percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind component remains within
the limit of 25kmph is called the wind coverage of the runway. The orientation of the
runway should be such that the minimum wind coverage of about 95% is obtained. For
busy airports, it is possible to obtain wind coverage up to 98% or even 100%.
Calm Period
The percentage of time during which wind intensity is less than 6.4kmph
v) Wind rose Diagram
For the airport, the average wind data of 5 to 10 years period are collected and
represented graphically in the form of a chart known as wind rose. The diagram is given
the name wind rose because of its irregular shape resembling a rose. The study of the
wind rose help in determining the most suitable orientation of the runway. it is also a
useful device for estimating the runway capacity.
The plotting of the wind rose diagram can be done in the following two ways.
Type I : showing direction and duration of wind
Type II : showing direction, duration and intensity of wind
Type I Wind rose Diagram

• Shows direction and duration of wind

• Radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle represents the
duration of wind to a certain scale. From the wind data, the total
percentage of wind blowing in
different directions is marked
accordingly and is joined by straight
lines. The best direction of runway is
indicated along direction of longest
line on wind rose diagram.

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Type I Wind Rose Diagram

Type II Wind rose Diagram

• Shows direction, duration and intensity of wind

• Concentric circles represent wind velocity to some scale

• The value of duration of wind in each direction is written in the

corresponding cell for the given velocity

Type 2 Wind Rose Diagram

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• A transparent rectangular paper strip of length slightly greater than dia.

of wind rose and width greater than twice the allowable cross wind
component is taken.

• Draw three parallel lines on strip such that distance between two is equal
to allowable cross wind component

• Overlay the transparent paper on wind rose along a particular direction

and find the sum of durations in that direction which is the wind coverage
in that direction. Repeat the same for different directions. The direction
which gives the maximum wind coverage is taken as suitable direction for
runway orientation.

BASIC RUNWAY LENGTH

The length of the runway based on the following assumed conditions is known as the basic
runway length:
i. No wind is blowing on the runway.
ii. The aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity.
iii. The airport is situated at sea-level.
iv. There is no wind blowing on the way to destination.
v. The runway is leveled in the longitudinal direction or in other words, it has zero effective
gradient.
vi. The standard temperature of 150C exists at the airport.
The manner in which an aircraft actually perform the landing and takeoff will decide to a large
extent the length of a runway. Following three cases will be considered:
1) Normal landing
2) Normal takeoff
3) Stopping in emergency

1. Normal landing: the air craft should come to stop within 60% of the landing distance
assuming that the pilot makes an approach at the threshold of the runway at a height of
15m. The beginning of the runway portion to be used as landing is known as the threshold.
The runway of full strength pavement is provided for the entire landing distance.

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2. Normal takeoff: the takeoff distance (TOD) must be, for a specific weight of aircraft,
115% of the actual distance the aircraft uses to reach a height of 10.5m. The normal
takeoff require a clearway which is defined as an area beyond the runway not less than
150m wide, centrally located about the extended centre-line of the runway and under the
control of the airport authorities. The clearway is free from any obstruction. The clearway
should not be more than one half the difference between 115% of LOD and TOD.

3. Stopping in emergency: for engine failure case, the TOD is the actual distance required
to reach a height of 10.5m with no percentage applied. In the case of an engine failure,
sufficient distance should be available to stop the airplane rather than continue the take
off. This distance is known as the accelerate-stop distance. It is required to provide a
clearway or stop way or both in this case. The stop way is defined as a rectangular area at
the end of runway and in the direction of takeoff. It is paved areas in which an aircraft
can be stopped after an interrupter take off due to engine failure.

Stop way: - it is defined as a rectangular area at the end of the runway in direction of take off in
which an aircraft can be stopped after an interrupted take off. Its width is equal to the width of
the runway and thickness sufficient to bear the weight of the aircraft.

Clearway: - it is defined as a rectangular area at the end of a strip or channel in the direction of
takeoff over which the aircraft may make its initial climb.

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CORRECTIONS TO BASIC RUNWAY LENGTH

To get actual length of the runway, the following three corrections are to be applied to the
calculated basic runway length:
1. Correction for elevation:
As per ICAO basic runway length should be increased at the rate of 7% per
300m rise in elevation above the MSL. The correction is required because the air density
reduces as the elevation increases which in turn reduces the lift on the wings of the
aircraft. Thus the aircraft will require more ground speed to rise to the air and for
achieving more speed, the longer length of runway will be required.
2. Correction for temperature:
The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as that of the increase
in its elevation above MSL. After the basic length is corrected for the elevation of airport,
it is further increased at the rate of 1% for every 10C rise in airport reference
temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature at the elevation. The airport
reference temperature is workout by the following expression:
Airport reference temperature,
(𝐓𝐦 − 𝐓𝐚)
𝐀𝐑𝐓 = 𝐓𝐚 +
𝟑
Where, Ta = monthly mean of the average daily temperature for the hottest month of the year.
Tm = monthly mean of the maximum daily temperature for the same month.
The standard temperature at the airport site can be determined by reducing the standard mean
sea-level temperature of 150C at the rate of 6.50C per thousand meter rise in elevation.
Standard atmospheric temp at given elevation = 15 – (0.0065 X given elevation)

According to ICAO, total correction in elevation and temperature should not exceed 35%
of the basic runway length.
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3. Correction for gradient:

As the gradient becomes steep, more consumption of energy takes place and longer
length of the runway will be required to attain the desired ground speed. The maximum
difference in elevation between the highest and the lowest points of the runway divided
by the total length of runway is known as the effective gradient. According to FAA
(Federal Aviation Administration) of UAS, the runway length after being corrected for
elevation and temperature should further be increased at the rate of 20% for every 1%
of the effective gradient.
Effective gradient = max difference in elevation between highest and lowest runway
points divided by total runway length

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RUNWAY

ICAO gives various geometric design standards for the airport design. They are:
• Length
• Longitudinal and effective gradient
• Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
• Safety area
• Sight distance
• Transverse gradient
• Width
Runway Length
• Basic runway length depends on the category in which the aircraft falls as per ICAO
classification (Refer Classification in Module I)
• This length is modified for elevation, temperature and gradient correction.
Longitudinal and Effective gradient
• The longitudinal gradient of runway increases the required runway length
• It also affects the aircraft performance
• These should be as flat as possible to avoid excessive engine thrust. The recommendation
given by ICAO shown in table

Type of airport Maximum Maximum effective

longitudinal gradient gradient (%)
(%)
A,B,C 1.5 1.0

D,E 2.0 2.0

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Rate of change of longitudinal gradient

The sudden or abrupt change of the longitudinal gradient is undesirable because it may
restrict the height distance and may cause premature lift off of the aircraft during takeoff
operation. As per ICAO, max rate of change of longitudinal gradient:
Type of airport Max. rate of change of
longitudinal gradient
A,B 0.10%
C 0.20%
D,E 0.40%

Safety area
The runway safety area is an area which is cleared, drained and graded. It includes the
structural pavement, shoulders on either side of runway and the additional length.
Shoulders
• These are usually lesser strength pavements and are provided on both sides of the runway
strip
• Sometimes these are stabilized to resist jet blast erosion or to accommodate maintenance
equipment
• Shoulders for small airport may be turfed
Blast Pad
• Runway blast pad may be constructed at the ends of the runway that serves jet operations
• The blast pad extends across the full width of the runway and its both sides shoulders
• It is essentially non traffic area
• Blast pad vary in length from 30m to 120m depending upon the type of aircraft to be
served
• Minimum width of safety area as per ICAO
– Instrumental runway- 300m
– Non-instrumental runway
• 150m for A,B,C
• 78m for D, E
Length=length of runway + 120m

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Sight Distance
There is generally no sight distance restrictions as the longitudinal gradient of the runway
are quite gentle. But there are chances for the collision of aircraft at points where two
runways or a runway or taxiway intersect each other, if adequate sight distance is note
provided. ICAO recommendations:
• For A,B,C- any two points 3m above the surface of runway should be mutually visible
from the distance equal to half the runway length
• For D,E- there should be unobstructed line of sight for any point 3m above runway to all
other points 2m above runway within a distance of atleast one half length of runway
Transverse gradient
• Transverse gradient is provided for quick disposal of the surface water. Max limits
(ICAO)
– A,B,C- 1.5%
– D,E - 2%

Runway Width
• Depends upon the type of airport and largest aircraft in operation

• In case of large aircraft, the central 30m width of the runway pavement is observed to take
more concentrated air traffic load. Also it requires additional space on the two sides of this
30m width so as to protect the possible damage to the farthest machinery

• Width of 45m is sufficient for large airports

RUNWAY LAYOUT/ARRANGEMENT/CONFIGURATION/PATTERNS
Single Runway:
• Simplest pattern
• Adopted when wind blows in one direction for most of the time in a year.
• In this type of runway pattern, only one operation ie landing or take off can be done at a time
• Under VFR conditions, single runway provide maximum 45 to 60 operations per hour

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• Under IFR, maximum 20 to 40 operations per hour

Parallel Runways:
• Capacity of this pattern depends on number of runways, spacing between runways,
weather conditions and navigational aids
• Spacing may be classified tree types for the purpose of convenience. Spacing does not
affect the capacity in VFR(visual flight rules) conditions and it may from 100 to 200
operations for IFR (instrumental flight rules) conditions hourly capacity varies as
 Close spacing – spacing varies from 210m to 750m (50 to 60 operations)
 Intermediate spacing – spacing varies from 750m to 1300m (60 to 75 operations)
 Far spacing – spacing is 1300m and more (100 to 125 operations)
Intersecting Runways:
• When two runways cross each other, this type of runway pattern is formed
• Adopted when wind in a particular direction does not provide the required
coverage (95%).
• Depending on cross wind component it can be used for simultaneous landing and take-
off.
• The highest capacity is achieved when the intersection is close to the take off end and
landing threshold
Divergent Runways:
• In this pattern, the runways diverge in direction without intersecting each other. Capacity
depends upon the wind conditions and visibility.
• When the winds are light, it is possible to use both the runways simultaneously
• When the flight paths are divergent, the capacity is the highest
• When the flight paths are towards the V, there is reduction in capacity

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TYPICAL AIRPORT LAYOUTS

Following are the characteristics or requirements of a well-planned airport layout:
 It grants maximum functional efficiency with minimum utilization of the space.
 It has adequate space for the loading apron.
 It has sufficient terminal building facilities.
 It provides excellent control tower visibility.
 The cost of construction is minimum.
 The operations of landing, taxing and take off the aircraft are carried out smoothly
without interfering with each other.
 The overall arrangement of the components is such that the future expansion is easily
permitted.
 The runway length and approaches are safe.
 The taxiway distance between the loading aprons the loading apron and the runway ends
are minimum.

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DESIGN OF TAXIWAYS
Taxiway provides access from runways to terminal area and service hangars
Layout of taxiways
● Factors affecting:
1. Arrangement – The arrangement of taxiways should be such that there is minimum
interference with aircrafts taking off
2. Busy airports – at busy airports, exit taxiways should be provided for exiting from
runway.
3. Crossing - avoid crossing of runway and taxiway
4. Turn-off speed – design for high turn-off speed
5. Route – Selection of route for taxiway should be such that it results in the shortest
distance from runway end to terminal area
Exit taxiways – The function of exit taxiways is to minimize the runway occupancy by the
landing aircraft. The location depends on
 Air traffic control – the rapidity and the manner air traffic control can process the
arrivals
 Exit speed
 Location of runway – related to the terminal area
 Number of exits
 Topographical features – high altitude, deep valley, obstruction in approach and
turning zone
 Type of aircraft
 Weather conditions

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Geometric Design Standards

1. Length of taxiway
2. Longitudinal gradient
3. Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
4. Sight distance
5. Transverse gradient
6. Turning radius
7. Width of safety area
8. Width of taxiway

Length of taxiway – Length of taxiway depends upon the distance between the apron and entry or
exit of the runway. The limiting length of the taxiway is not recommended by any organization. To save
fuel consumption, it should be as short as possible.
Longitudinal gradient – If the longitudinal gradient is steep, there will be more consumption of fuel
Max specified by ICAO:
1. A&B types of airport- 1.5%
2. C,D & E types - 3%
Rate of change of longitudinal gradient – Sight distance on the pavement is affected by the rate of
change of longitudinal gradient. Max rate of change of slope for 30m length of vertical curve as per
ICAO:
A,B & C types- 1%
D & E types - 1.2%
Sight distance - Speed of the aircraft on the taxiway is lower than its speed on the runway. Hence, the smaller
values of sight distance will be sufficient on the taxiway
– ICAO recommendations:
◦ A & B types – surface taxiway should be seen for a distance of 195m from a point
2.10 m above taxiway
◦ C,D & E types – 300 m from a point 3 m above taxiway
Transverse gradient – For quick disposal of the surface water
ICAO recommendations for maximum transverse gradients:
A,B,C- 1.5%
D&E- 2%
Minimum gradient (desirable) - 0.50%
FAA specification – 5% for first 3m width and 2% thereafter for all types
Turning radius – A horizontal curve is to be provided whenever there is a change in the direction of the
taxiway. For this purpose, circular curve of large radius is preferred, radius can be obtained from
following

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formula: V2
R=
125 f

Where, R = radius of curve, m, V= speed of aircraft in kmph, f = coefficient of friction between

tyre and pavement surface (0.13)
Minimum value of radius of curvature irrespective of speed
 for airports serving large subsonic jet planes – 120 m
 for airports serving supersonic jet planes – 180m

Horonjeff’s equation:
0.388W 2
R=
0.5T – S
Where, R = radius of centre line of taxiway in m, W = wheelbase of aircraft, m, T= width of taxiway
pavement in m, S = distance between point midway of the main gear and the edge of taxiway
pavement, m (S=6 + (wheel tread/2))
At this radius, the main gear of aircraft would not come closer than 6m from the edge of the
pavement
Maximum of above 3 is taken as turning radius.
Width of safety area - The safety area of the taxiway is made up of partially paved shoulders on either
side plus the area which is graded and drained
• A minimum width of 7.5 m of shoulders adjacent to the pavement edge should be paved with
light strength material with the following particulars
 The shoulder must be thick enough to support the airport petrol vehicles and the
sweeping equipment
 The shoulders should normally be treated with bitumen
 The surface should be made of such materials that disintegration due to the hot blast of
the jet engine does not occur
 The surface should be smooth and impervious
Width of Taxiway - The width of a taxiway is much less than a runway
• The taxiway widths recommended by the ICAO are as follows:
 For A and B types of airport 22.5 m
 For C type of airport 15.0 m
 For D type of airport 9.9 m
 For E type of airport 7.5 m.

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APRONS
The paved area adjacent and in front of the terminal building is known as the apron and it
is used for loading and unloading of the aero planes as well as for fueling and minor servicing
and check up of the aero planes. The aero planes are berthed on the aprons before they are loaded
and unloaded. Hence the loading apron is also known as parking apron. It is desirable to provide
cement concrete pavement for the aprons to resist the effects of jet blast and fuel spillage.
Following are three factors affect the size of an apron:
1. Gate position
2. Number of gates
3. Systems of aircraft of parking.
1. Gate position: the term gate is used to denote an aircraft parking space adjacent to a
terminal building and used by a single aircraft for the loading and unloading of the
passengers, baggage and cargo.
The size of a gate depends on the following two factors:
i) Size of aircraft: the size of aircraft to be accommodated determines the space
required for parking as well as for manoeurring. It also determines the extent and size of
the servicing equipment required to be provided to service the aircraft.
ii) Type of aircraft parking: the type of aircraft parking used at the gates affects the
gate size because the area required to manoeuvre in and out of a
gate varies depending on the way the aircraft is parked.

The type of aircraft parking grouped a can be grouped in the following five categories:
a) Nose-in parking: in this arrangement, the aircraft is parked at right angles to the terminal
building with its nose as close to the building as permissible. The aircraft manoeuvres
into the parking position under its own power and in order to leave the gate, the air craft
has to be towed out a sufficient distance to allow it to proceed under its own power.
The advantages of this configuration are:
i) Causes lower noise levels as there is no powered turning movement near the terminal
building.
ii) It facilitate passenger loading as the nose is near the terminal building.

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iii) It requires the smallest gate area for a given aircraft.

iv) It sends no jet blast towards the terminal building.
b) Angled nose-in parking: this configuration is similar to nose-in parking except that the
aircraft is not parked perpendicular to the terminal building. This arrangement allows the
aircraft to maneuver in and out of the gate under its own power. It however requires a
larger gate area than the nose-in parking and causes a higher noise level.
c) Nose-out parking: in this the aircraft is parked at right angles to the terminal building
with its close to the building as permissible.
The advantages of this configuration are:
i) It permits the effective use of the rear door.
ii) It requires less power while manoeuvring the loaded aircraft out of the gate
position.
d) Angled nose-out parking: this is similar to the nose-out parking except that the aircraft is
not parked at right angles to the terminal building. This allows the aircraft to manoeuvre
in and out of gate position without towing. The only drawback of this arrangement is that
the hot jet blast and noise are pointed towards the terminal building when the aircraft
starts its taxiing manoeuvre.
e) Parallel parking: this configuration is the easiest to achieve from the standpoint of the
aircraft of manoeuvring. The main advantage of this arrangement is that both front and
rear doors can be used for the loading and unloading of the passengers.
2. Number of gates: the number of gates is determined in such a way that a predetermined
hourly flow of aircraft can be easily and conveniently accommodated. Thus the number
of gates required will depend on the following factors:
a. Estimated hour volume: the number of aircraft to be handled during the design hour
forms the basis for estimating the number of gates. It should be seen that for a balanced
airport design, the volume does not exceed the capacity of the runways.
b. Gate occupancy time: the amount of time an aircraft occupies a gate is known as the
gate occupancy time. It depends on the size of aircraft and on the type of operation,
whether it is through flight or a turnaround flight. An aircraft on a through flight may
require 20 to 30 minutes, whereas a turnaround flight will require a gate occupancy time
of 40 to 60 minutes.
c. Gate capacity analysis: basis of gate capacity analysis is that the gate time demanded by
aircraft should be less than or equal to the gate time supplied for such aircraft. The two
analytical models developed determining the capacity of gates are are follows:
i. Unrestricted Gate use: It assumes all aircraft can use all the gates available at an
airport.
ii. Restricted Gate use: It assumes that the aircraft of a cert in size or airline
can only use the gates which are specially designed for these aircraft or airlines.

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d. Gate Utilization Factor: It is unlikely that all the gates available at a terminal building
are used 100 percent. It occurs due to various situations like:
1. The aircraft maneuvering in and out of a gate often block other aircraft
attempting to move into or out of their gates.
2. The time gaps b/n successive aircraft schedules may be too small for the gate
to be useful for other flights.
This factor may vary from 0.50 to 0.80.
e. Formula for Calculating Gate Capacity: The formula which is used for calculating
gate capacity as follows:

G= No: of gates (For no restrictions on the use of gates)

C= Design volume or capacity of gate in aircraft per hour for arrival or departures T=
Weighted average gate occupancy time in hour
U= Coefficient indicating gate utilization factor
For restricted gate use, the gate capacity of each type of gate is found out and the
minimum gate capacity is taken to determine the overall capacity of the airport.
3. System Of Aircraft Parking:
Aircraft can be grouped adjecent to the terminal building in a variety of way.
a. Frontal or linear system
b. Open apron or transporter system
c. Pier or finger system
d. Satellite system
a) Frontal or linear system:
• Aircraft are parked along the face of the terminal building.
• Simple system.
• Adaptable to the airport with low airline activity.
• Apron providing close in parking of 3 to 6 commercial aircrafts.
• It offers ease of access and relatively short walking distance.
• Affords a high degree of flexibility for expansion.
• Does not permit convenient locations of the common facilities.
• Lead to higher operating cost.
b) Open-apron or transporter system
Aircraft remotely located in rows from the terminal building.
 Passengers have to walk a long distance.
 May exposed to bad weather, noise and hot blast of the jet aircraft.
Characteristics:
a) It is possible to separate aircraft servicing activities from the terminal building.
b) It possesses flexibility in providing additional aircraft parking positions when the
demand increases.
c) The walking distance of the passenger is reduced.
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Advantages:
 Minimize the level of capital cost.
 High degree of flexibility in operation and expansion.
 The maneuverability of the aircraft is very high.
Disadvantages:
 It may leads to unnecessary delay.
 Increase the processing time for the passengers.

d) Pier or finger system

 Connection of the aircraft is achieved through the piers extending from the main
terminal area.
 It can be t-shaped, straight or y-shaped.
 Each pier has a row of gate positions on both sides.
 Aircraft are arranged around the axis of the pier in parallel or nose in parking
arrangement.
Advantages:

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● Economical: economical in terms of capital and operating costs.

● Expansion: expanded in incremental steps as the demand of aircraft or
passengers increases without disturbing the central processing facility.
e) Satellite system
 Small buildings located on the apron are known as the satellites.
 Satellite is usually reached from the terminal building by means of surface,
underground, or above ground system.
Advantages:
• Common facilities: possible to adopt common departure lounge and check in
function.
• Movement of aircraft: opportunity for simple maneuvering and taxing patterns
for the aircraft.
Disadvantages:
● Cost: the construction cost is relatively high
● Discomfort to passengers: walking distance is too long for passengers
● Flexibility: it lacks the flexibility for expansion

LOADING APRONS
• The paved area adjacent and in front of the terminal building is known as the apron and it
is used for loading and unloading of the aeroplanes as well as for fuelling and minor
servicing and check up of the aeroplanes.
• The aeroplanes are berthed on the aprons before they are loaded and unloaded. Hence,
the loading apron is also known as the parking apron. It is desirable to provide cement
concrete pavement for the aprons to resist the effects of jet blast and fuel spillage.
• The dimensions, of the loading apron depend upon the number of loading positions or
gate positions required, the size of aircraft and the parking system to be adopted.
Generally a clearance of 7.5 m is provided between the aircrafts parked on the adjacent
aircraft stands.

HOLDING APRONS

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• It is the portion of the paved area which is provided adjacent to ends of runway in case of
busy airports.
• It is also known as holding apron/ run-up or warm-up pads
• The taking off aircraft coming from the loading apron is held on the holding apron for some
time so that the aircraft instrument and engine operation may be checked prior to the take
off of the aircraft.
Following points should be noted in connection with the holding apron.
(1) Configuration:
• the holding apron should be of sufficient area to accommodate 3 or 4 aircrafts of the largest
size expected to be handled by the airport.
(2) Entry to the runway:
• As far as possible, the holding apron should be located so as to permit aircraft departing
there from to enter the runway at an angle less than 90 degree.
• It will permit the pilot to turn the aircraft rapidly from the taxiway.
(3) Facility of bypass:
• The holding aprons are made large enough so that if an aircraft is unable to take off due to
any reason, another aircraft ready to take off can bypass it.
• If this facility is not provided, the damaged aircraft will have to produce down the runway at
exit at the nearest exit taxiway to reach the terminal area.
• This would assume more time and reduce the airport capacity.
(4) Holding bays:
• These are relatively small apros placed at a convenient location in the airport for the
temporary storage of the aircraft.
• The number of gates at some airports may be insufficient to handle the demand during a
busy period of the day.
• Under such circumstances, the aircrafts are routed by the air traffic control to a holding bay
and they are held there until a gate becomes available.
(5) Location:
• The airport should be permitted to enter the runway as close to the end of the runway as as
close to the end of the runway as possible.
• The holding aircraft should be placed outside the bypass route so that the blast from the
holding aircraft will not be directed towards bypass route.
(6) Peak demands:
• The peak traffic volume at many airports exceeds the capacity of a holding apron.
• It results in aircraft queues on the taxiway leading to the end of the runway

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BLAST FENCES
• Aircraft ejects hot exhaust gases at relatively high velocities .If it is high as 300 kmph
may cause inconvenience .Airport equipment, pavement etc are damaged due to jet blast.
• To grant protection from jet blast ,blast fences are used
• Two types
– Single curved vane blast fences
– Multiple curved vane blast fences

HANGARS
• It provides enclosure for housing and repairing of the aircraft
• Two types;
• Nose hangars:- For bigger aircrafts
• T hangars:- For smaller aircrafts

Site Location Of A Hangar

• It should be connected with terminal building and loading aprons
• It should be linked with essential utilities like water supply , drainage ,electricity
,telephone ,etc
• It should have favorable topography with good natural drainage
• It should not be along with the direction of frequent wind storms
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TERMINAL BUILDING
• The transition of passengers from ground to air occurs in the terminal area.
• Portion other than landing area
• Include terminal building, operational buildings, vehicle parking etc
• Provide for birthing, servicing and storage of the aircrafts.
• Degree of development depends volume of airport operation, type of air traffic used in
the airport, no. of passengers and airport employees to be served.
The key feature of any terminal area is the terminal building.
• Terminal building is the building which is mainly used for the passengers, airline staff
and administrative management.
• Control tower weather bureau etc.
Terminal building discussed in 6 sub divisions
1) Design objectives
2) Facilities to be provided
3) Noise control
4) Planning considerations
5) Site selection
6) Space requirements
1) Design objectives:
a) Airline objectives:
 Provision of security
 Accommodation of aircrafts with max. operational efficiency
 Latest energy conservation measures
 Efficient means of passenger and baggage flow
b) Airport management objectives:
 Facilities to generate max. revenue
 Maintenance of the existing terminal operation during all stages of construction
 Minimize the maintenance and operating cost etc.
c) Community objectives:
 Co-ordination with the existing and planned off airport highway system
 Provision of harmonious architectural features
d) Passenger’s objectives:
 Parking facilities
 Separation of enplaning and de deplaning roadways
 Satisfying the needs of the people for convenience & comfort etc.
(2) Facilities to be provided:
 Banks with foreign exchange desks
 Bath or shower
 Bookshops and newspaper sales
 Cloak rooms and lockers
 General information desks &tourist offices

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 Medical shop selling toiletries, perfume, sunglass, make-up & pharmaceutical

goods etc.
 Medical unit and 1st aid centre
 Post office, telephone
 Restaurant & snack bar facilities
 Rest rooms
 Sauna & massage parlours
 space for customs, immigration, duty-free shops, inspection of baggage, crew,
passengers, aircraft etc.
 Space for nursing mothers
 Stationery, small gifts & toys for the children
 toilets
(3) Noise control:
• There will be considerable noise in the terminal building due to the presence of
passengers.
• Room control tower made up of noise proof material. The designer of terminal
building should study the problem of noise and make suitable provisions for the
control of noise in some of the specific rooms in ter. Building
4) Planning considerations:
 Centralized system: In this system, all the passengers, baggage and cargo are routed
through a central location and then passed on to the respective aircraft positions. This
system is convenient when the aircraft parking area is within a walking distance of
180 m. It also proves to be economical due to the fact that many of the common
facilities may be used to serve a large number of aircraft gate positions.

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• Decentralized system: In this system, the passenger facilities are arranged in smaller units and
repeated in one or more buildings. Each unit is arranged around one or more aircraft gate
positions and it serves the passengers using those gate positions. All airline functions are
carried out adjacent to the departing plane. This system proves to be uneconomical when the
number of gates required by the individual airliner at one airport exceeds six or so.
• Decentralized-Centralized System:
Number of gate positions required for the individual airliner at one airport exceeds the
decentralized plan also becomes operationally uneconomical. At this situation, another shift
towards the centralization of each individual airline operation becomes essential. This results in
a series of centralized airline spaces, arranged in a decentralized pattern.

Decentralized-Centralized System
(5) Site selection:
Terminal building should be well placed to carry out its functions in the best possible
manner.
 It should be centrally located w.r.t the runways.
 Should have convenient and easy access to the highway.
 Should have enough provision for future expansion.
 Favourable orientation w.r.t wind, topographical features of the area etc.
 There should be adequate space available for the parking of vehicle.
 Easy facility of natural drainage.
 The utilities like water, sewage and telephone should be easily available.
(6) Space requirements:
The determination of space requirements at the terminal building is strongly influenced by the
level of service desired.
• The FAA has indicated that gross terminal area space requirements b/w 7.43 to 11.15
square metre per 1000 annual enplaned passenger are reasonable
• The approx. % recommended by FAA are
Airline operations - 38%
Airport administration - 17%
Public space - 30%
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Utilities, shops etc. - 15%

Total - 100%
AIRPORT OBSTRUCTIONS
The airport obstructions which are to be considered for the safe air navigation are broadly
divided in the following two categories:
1. Imaginary surfaces
2. Objects with actual heights
1. Imaginary surfaces
Imaginary Surfaces are the established surfaces in relation to the airport and to each runway
above which no obstruction should project. Following are the five types of imaginary surfaces:
1. Approach surface
2. Conical Surface
3. Horizontal Surface
4. Take off climb surface
5. Transitional surface
i) Approach surface: The approach surface is trapezoidal in shape. It is longitudinally centered on the
extended centre-line of the runway. It has upgrade from its beginning near that extremity of the runway
which is on the landing side. Its side diverges as they extend away from the extremity of the runway. It
is applied to each end of a runway.
ii) Conical surface: The conical surface extends upwards and outwards from the outer circular edge of
the horizontal surface to a point which is at some height above the horizontal surface. The conical
surface is circular in shape with its side slope in the upgrade direction. Thus the radius of the conical
surface at its top is more than its radius at its bottom. The conical surface seems to be resting on the
horizontal surface below.

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iii) Horizontal surface: The horizontal surface extends from the upper edge of the transitional
surface to the inner or lower circular edge of the conical surface. The outer edge of the inner
horizontal surface (IHS) is the same as the inner or lower edge of the conical surface. The shape of
the HIS need not be circular.
The outer horizontal surface (OHS) is circular in plan with its height 150m above the ARP (airport
reference point). It is not to be established for the aerodromes having runway of length less than
900m. For runways of length between 900m to 1500m, the OHS extends to 9900m from the ARP
elevation. For airports having runway length exceeding 1500m, the OHS extends to 15000m from
the ARP elevation. The structures protruding above the OHS are not permitted.

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iv) Take off climb surface: This type of surface is trapezoidal in shape. It has upgrade from its
beginning near that extremity of runway which is on the take off side. Its sides diverge as they
extend away from the extremity of runway.
v) Transitional surface: the transitional surface is trapezoidal in shape. It has side or inclination. It
extends along the landing strip and upon part of the approach surface. It slopes upwards and
outwards to the HIS.
2. Objects with actual heights
Any objects which exceeds certain limit above the ground is considered as an obstruction to the
air navigation.
Approach Zone
The Approach Zone isall that land which lies directly under an imaginary approach surface
longitudinally centered on the extended center line at each end of a runway
• Any object within 4.5 km distance from the runway end is considered as an obstruction , if its
height is more the 30m above ground or above the level of approach end of runway
whichever is higher.
• Any object which is located beyond a distance of4.5km from the runway end is considered as
an obstruction, if its height above 30m increases by more than 7.5m for each additional
1.5km distance from the runway end or it exceeds 75m within 15km distance from the
runway end
• Any objects which projects above the minimum approach flight altitude or whose height
exceeds 150m above the ground is also to be considered as an obstruction

Clear Zone
Clear zone is used to indicate the innermost portion of the approach zone and it is provided at the
end of runways. It should be preferable a level area and except for fences, ditches and other minor
obstructions, all major obstruction should be removed from the clear zone. Length of clear zone is
determine by the distance required to reach a height of 30m for the appropriate approach surface.

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Turning Zone
The turning zone is the area of airport other than approach area and it is intended for turning
operations of the aircraft in case of emergencies like failure of engine or trouble at the start of the
takeoff.
• Any object located within a distance of 4.5km from the ARP is considered as an obstruction,
if its height exceeds 51m above the ground or the established airport elevation whichever is
more.
• Any object located beyond a distance of 4.5km from the ARP is considered as an obstruction,
if its height exceeds 51m plus 30m for each additional 1.5km distance from the ARP or it
exceeds 150m within a distance of 15km from the ARP.

ZONING LAWS
The forming of suitable zoning laws is an essential part of an airport master plan and they are to
be implemented as soon as the final selection of the airport site is made.
The airports are involved in the following two types of zoning:
i) Height zoning
ii) Land-use zoning
1. Height zoning:
The height or hazard zoning is mainly aimed to protect the approaches to the airport from the
obstructions. It regulates the height of the structures on the land surrounding the airport. The
standards of height are formed by keeping in mind the size of the airport and the typeof aircrafts
using it.
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2. Land-use zoning:
The land-use zoning governs the type of development. The uses can be classified as either
closely or remotely related to the aviation. The closely related users include terminal building,
parking, aprons, runways, taxiways and maintenance facilities.
The non-aviation uses relate to the commercial, industrial and recreational activates. It is ensured by
this zoning that such uses do not interfere with the aircraft operations. The smoke obstructs visibility
and hence, the industries giving out smoke and dust are not allowed.
Factors with respect to zoning laws:
a) Legal Interests:
Zonings laws should not interfere with legal rights of land owners adjacent to airport site. Zoning
laws protects the interests of both airport authority and land owners.
b) Nature of ordinance:
Zoning laws should be framed to promote welfare of public, their comfort, morals, safety & health.
c) Zoning map:
It is necessary to prepare zoning map showing property lines, land use pattern, permissible height of
structures etc. It helps the airport management in making decisions concerning the land use requests.

AIRPORT CAPACITY
The number of aircraft movements (landing and takeoff) which an airport can process within
a specified period of time, by allowing acceptable time of delay to the departing aircraft.
• Landing is given priority over takeoff
• Practical capacity < theoretical/ideal capacity due to practical considerations
Aircraft delay is expressed as the difference between the time required for an aircraft to
operate on an airfield or airfield component and the normal time it would require to operate
without interference from other aircraft
• Delay is proportional to total number of aircraft movements per hour
Factors affecting airport operating capacity:
1. Runway configurations and the connected taxiways
2. Aircraft characteristics and their arrival to departure ratio - Smaller and slower aircraft-
occupy less time-can be spaced closer-higher capacity. Landing is given priority over
take-off
3. Weather conditions - Clear weather conditions-VFR (Visual Flight Rules); else IFR
(instrumental Flight Rules). High capacity during VFR conditions since close spacing on
runway is possible
4. Terrain and man-made obstructions
5. Loading apron space
6. Navigational aids - Number of ILS (Instrument Landing System), Radar and surveillance
radar increases capacity
7. Aircraft processing technique

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AIRPORT SIZE
Following four factors affect the necessary size of an airport:
1. Elevation of airport site –The elevation of airport above mean sea level exerts a significant
influence on the runway requirements of the aircraft. The performance of any airplane varies
at different altitudes due to the variation in the temperature and density of air. The higher the
site, the smaller will be the density of air and consequently, the greater runway length will be
required.
2. Meteorological conditions – The important meteorological conditions which influence the
size of an airport are wind and temperature. The direction of wind and velocity decide the
number of runways and their configuration and arrangement. The temperature influences the
runway length. The increase in temperature results in the decrease of air density and hence,
on a hot day an aircraft will require a considerable larger run before taking off.
3. Performance characteristics of aircrafts –The knowledge of the performance characteristics
of the aircrafts likely to use the airport is most essential in determining the runway lengths.
4. Volume of traffic –The volume and character of air traffic at the airport will have influence
on the numbers of runways required, the arrangement of taxiways and the size of the ramp
area.
PROBLEMS

Q1) Runway of an airport is situated at an elevation of 250m and has an effective

gradient of 0.3%. Airport reference temperature is 18oC. The basic runway length is 2500m.
Determine the actual required length of runway.
Ans:-
Given:
Basic runway length = 2500m
Elevation = 250m above MSL
ART = 180C
Effective gradient = 0.3%
Correction for elevation
Correction for elevation = (7/100)*2500*(250/300) = 145.83 m
Corrected length = 2500 + 145.83 = 2645.83 m
Correction for temperature
Standard temperature = 15 – (0.0065 * 250)
= 13.375 0C
Correction for temperature =
(1/100) * 2645.83 *(18- 13.375) = 122.37 m
Corrected length = 2645.83+122.37= 2768.2 m
Check for total correction for elevation and temperature
Total correction in percent= (2768.2-2500)*100/2500
= 10.73%
Total correction, 10.73%< 35%, hence OK
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Correction for gradient

Correction for gradient = (20/100)*2768.2*0.3 = 166.09 m
Corrected length = 2768.2 + 166.09= 2934.29 m

Q2) Length of a runway at Mean Sea Level (MSL), standard temperature and zero gradients is
1500 m. The site has an elevation of 1000 m above MSL, with a reference temperature of 34 0C.
The runway has to be constructed with an effective gradient of 0.26%. Determine the actual
length of the runway at the site.
Ans:
Given:
Basic runway length = 1500m
Elevation = 1000m above MSL
ART = 340C
Effective gradient = 0.26%
Correction for elevation
Correction for elevation = (7/100)*1500*(1000/300)
= 350 m
Corrected length = 1500 + 350 = 1850 m
Correction for temperature
Standard temperature = 15 – (0.0065 * 1000) = 8.5 0C
Correction for temperature = (1/100) * 1850 *(34-8.5)
= 471.75 m
Corrected length = 1850 + 471.75 = 2321.75 m
Check for total correction for elevation and temperature
Total correction in percent = (2321.75-1500)*100/1500
= 54.78%
Total correction, 54.78% > 35%, hence need to re examine

Q3) The length of a runway under standard conditions is 1500m. The airport is to be provided at
an elevation of 110m above mean sea level. The airport reference temperature is 320C. Following
data refers to the proposed longitudinal section of runway. Determine the corrected length of
runway.

Given:
◦ Basic runway length = 1500m
◦ Elevation = 110m above MSL
◦ ART = 320C

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Correction for elevation

◦ Correction for elevation = (7/100)*1500*(110/300) = 38.5 m
◦ Corrected length = 1500 + 38.5 = 1538.5 m
Correction for temperature
◦ Standard temperature = 15 – (0.0065 * 110) = 14.285 0C
◦ Correction for temperature = (1/100) * 1538.5 *(32-14.285) = 272.55 m
◦ Corrected length = 1538.5 + 272.55 = 1811.05 m
Check for total correction for elevation and temperature
◦ Total correction in percent= (1811.05-1500)*100/1500 = 20.74%
◦ Total correction , 20.74%< 35%, hence OK
Correction for gradient
Chainage (m) Gradient (%) RL (m)

0 100
300 +1 100+(1*(300-0)/100) = 103
900 -0.2 103 – (0.2*(900-300)/100)=101.8
1500 +0.5 101.8 + (0.5 * (1500-900)/100) = 104.8
1800 +1 104.8 + (1 * (1800-1500)/100) = 107.8
2100 -0.3 107.8 – (0.3 * (2100-1800)/100) = 106.9

Highest RL = 107.8 m
Lowest RL = 100 m
Effective gradient = (highest RL – lowest RL)/total runway length
= (107.8 – 100)*100/ 1811.05
= 0.43%
Correction for gradient = (20/100)*1811.05*0.43
=155.75 m
Corrected length = 1811.05+ 155.75 = 1966.8 m

Q4) The data below refers to the daily temperature for the hottest month of a year for a given
airport site. Determine the airport reference temperature.

(Note: The originally printed average temperature on Day 3 (705.7oC) is a typographical error.
The correct value is 25.7oC)

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Mean of maximum daily temperatures, Tm = 1311.6/30 = 43.720C

Mean of average daily temperatures, Ta = 789.7/30 = 26.320C

Tm−Ta 43.72−26.32
Airport reference temperature = Ta + = 26.32 + = 26.32 + 5.8
3 3

= 32.12 0 C

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