Physics
IGCSE — April 2026 Assessment Study Guide
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Papers Covered
Measurement and Units Forces and Motion (fully) Paper 2 (MCQ) + Paper 4 (Theory)
(fully) + Paper 6 (Alt. to Practical)
Chapter 1 — Measurement and Units
1.1 SI Units and Prefixes
📌 Definition
The SI (International System of Units) is the globally accepted system of measurement in
science.
Every physical quantity has a base unit. All other units are derived from these.
The Seven SI Base Units
Physical Quantity SI Base Unit Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd
SI Prefixes — Must Know
Prefix Symbol Multiplier Example
tera T 10^12 1 THz = 10^12 Hz
giga G 10^9 1 GHz = 10^9 Hz
mega M 10^6 1 MHz = 10^6 Hz
kilo k 10^3 1 km = 1000 m
centi c 10^-2 1 cm = 0.01 m
milli m 10^-3 1 mm = 0.001 m
micro u 10^-6 1 us = 10^-6 s
nano n 10^-9 1 nm = 10^-9 m
1.2 Scalars and Vectors
Type Definition Examples
Scalar quantity Has magnitude (size) only Mass, distance, speed, time,
temperature, energy, work, power
Vector quantity Has both magnitude AND Displacement, velocity,
direction acceleration, force, weight,
momentum
📌 Vector Addition
To add vectors: use a scale drawing or the triangle/parallelogram law.
Resultant vector: the single vector that has the same effect as two or more vectors
combined.
Vectors in opposite directions: subtract the smaller from the larger.
1.3 Measuring Length
• Ruler: measures to the nearest mm (0.1 cm). Read the scale at eye level to avoid parallax error
• Vernier caliper: measures to 0.1 mm (0.01 cm) — used for external/internal dimensions and
depths
• Micrometer screw gauge: measures to 0.01 mm (0.001 cm) — used for very small objects like
wire diameter
Measuring Curved/Irregular Lengths
• Use a thread or flexible tape — lay along the curve, then measure the straightened thread
1.4 Measuring Time
• Stopwatch: measures to 0.01 s — used for timing events
• For short repeated events (e.g., pendulum swing): time several complete cycles, then divide
• Period (T): the time for one complete oscillation
✅ Practical Tip
To reduce random error when timing a pendulum: time 20 complete oscillations and divide
by 20.
This reduces the effect of human reaction time on the measurement.
1.5 Measuring Volume
• Regular solids: use formula (e.g., V = length x width x height for a cuboid)
• Liquid: use a measuring cylinder — read the bottom of the meniscus at eye level
• Irregular solid (e.g., stone): use Eureka can / displacement method
📌 Displacement Method
Displacement method: fully submerge the object in water in a measuring cylinder.
Volume of object = final reading - initial reading (or volume of water displaced into a beaker).
1.6 Measuring Mass and Weight
• Mass: measured in kg using a balance (e.g., top-pan balance). Mass does NOT change with
location.
• Weight: the gravitational force on an object. Measured in N using a spring balance (newton-
meter).
📌 Formula
W = m x g where W = weight (N), m = mass (kg), g = gravitational field strength (N/kg)
On Earth: g = 10 N/kg | On the Moon: g = 1.6 N/kg
1.7 Density
📌 Formula
Density (rho) = mass / volume Units: kg/m^3 or g/cm^3
Density tells us how much mass is packed into a unit volume.
Worked Example
📊 Worked Example
A stone has a mass of 240 g and volume of 80 cm^3.
Density = 240 / 80 = 3.0 g/cm^3
To convert: 3.0 g/cm^3 = 3000 kg/m^3 (multiply by 1000)
• Substances that float on water have density < 1.0 g/cm^3 (less dense than water)
• Substances that sink have density > 1.0 g/cm^3 (more dense than water)
1.8 Accuracy, Precision and Errors
Term Definition How to Reduce
Accuracy How close a measurement is to the Calibrate instruments; repeat
true value measurements
Precision How consistent/repeatable Use more precise instruments;
measurements are (small spread) careful technique
Random error Unpredictable variation in Repeat and average; take more
measurements — causes scatter readings
Systematic error Consistent offset in all Recalibrate instruments; check
measurements (e.g., zero error) zero; adjust readings
Zero error Instrument reads non-zero when it Note the zero error and subtract
should read zero it from all readings
⚠️Common Error
Parallax error: looking at a scale at an angle — the reading appears different from its true
value.
How to avoid: always read a scale with your eye directly in line with the pointer or liquid level.
1.9 Significant Figures and Standard Form
• Significant figures (s.f.) tell us the precision of a measurement
• Rule: when calculating, round your final answer to the same number of s.f. as the least precise
given value
• Standard form: A x 10^n where 1 <= A < 10 Example: 0.00045 = 4.5 x 10^-4
Number Standard Form Significant Figures
3 400 000 3.4 x 10^6 2 s.f.
0.000 86 8.6 x 10^-4 2 s.f.
0.003 050 3.050 x 10^-3 4 s.f.
1 200 (to 4 s.f.) 1.200 x 10^3 4 s.f.
Chapter 2 — Forces and Motion
2.1 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration
📌 Key Formulae
Speed (scalar) = distance / time Units: m/s
Velocity (vector) = displacement / time Units: m/s
Acceleration = change in velocity / time = (v - u) / t Units: m/s^2
Quantity Symbol Formula Unit Scalar or Vector?
Distance d — m Scalar
Displacement s — m Vector
Speed v v=d/t m/s Scalar
Velocity v v=s/t m/s Vector
Acceleration a a = (v - u) / t m/s^2 Vector
Worked Example — Acceleration
📊 Worked Example
A car increases velocity from 10 m/s to 30 m/s in 5 s.
a = (v - u) / t = (30 - 10) / 5 = 20 / 5 = 4 m/s^2
2.2 Distance-Time and Speed-Time Graphs
Distance-Time (d-t) Graph
Feature of Graph What It Means
Horizontal line (zero gradient) Object is stationary (not moving)
Straight line with positive gradient Object moving at constant speed
Curved line with increasing gradient Object accelerating
Curved line with decreasing gradient Object decelerating
Gradient of line Speed of the object (speed = gradient =
rise/run)
Speed-Time (v-t) / Velocity-Time Graph
Feature of Graph What It Means
Horizontal line Constant speed / velocity (zero acceleration)
Straight line sloping upward Uniform (constant) acceleration
Straight line sloping downward Uniform deceleration
Gradient of line Acceleration (a = gradient = change in v /
change in t)
Area under the graph Distance (displacement) travelled
📌 Area Under v-t Graph
To find distance from a v-t graph: calculate the area of the shape under the line.
Triangle: Area = 1/2 x base x height | Rectangle: Area = length x width
Trapezium: Area = 1/2 x (a + b) x h
2.3 Newton's Laws of Motion
Newton's First Law
📌 First Law
An object remains at rest or continues to move in a straight line at constant velocity UNLESS
acted upon by a resultant (net) force.
This property is called INERTIA.
Newton's Second Law
📌 Second Law & Formula
Resultant Force = mass x acceleration F = ma
Units: F in N, m in kg, a in m/s^2
The greater the mass, the greater the force needed to produce the same acceleration.
Newton's Third Law
📌 Third Law
When object A exerts a force on object B, object B exerts an equal and opposite force on
object A.
These forces are: equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, same type of force, act on
DIFFERENT objects.
⚠️Common Misconception
Newton's Third Law pairs act on DIFFERENT objects. They are NOT the same as balanced
forces (which act on the same object).
2.4 Forces — Types and Effects
Type of Force Description Unit
Weight (W) Gravitational pull on an object towards N
the Earth's centre. W = mg
Normal reaction (N) Perpendicular contact force from a N
surface on an object
Friction (f) Opposes relative motion between N
surfaces; acts parallel to surface
Air resistance / drag Friction force from air on a moving N
object; increases with speed
Tension (T) Force in a stretched string, rope or N
spring
Upthrust (U) Upward force exerted by a fluid on a N
submerged or floating object
Thrust / Driving force Forward force from an engine or N
propulsion system
2.5 Resultant Force and Balanced Forces
• Resultant force: the single force that produces the same effect as all the forces acting together
• If resultant force = 0: object is in equilibrium (stationary or moving at constant velocity —
Newton's 1st Law)
• If resultant force > 0: object accelerates in the direction of the resultant (Newton's 2nd Law)
Worked Example — F = ma
📊 Worked Example
A car of mass 1200 kg accelerates at 3 m/s^2. Calculate the resultant force.
F = ma = 1200 x 3 = 3600 N
2.6 Friction and Terminal Velocity
Friction
• Friction always opposes motion and acts in the opposite direction to movement
• Friction converts kinetic energy into thermal (heat) energy
• Useful friction: car brakes, walking, writing. Unwanted friction: engine parts, reduces efficiency
• Reducing friction: lubrication (oil/grease), smooth surfaces, ball bearings, streamlining
Terminal Velocity
📌 Terminal Velocity
Terminal velocity is reached when driving force = resistive force (drag/air resistance).
At terminal velocity: resultant force = 0, so acceleration = 0, velocity is constant.
• A falling object: weight pulls it down; air resistance acts upward
• Initially: weight > air resistance → accelerates
• As speed increases: air resistance increases
• Terminal velocity: weight = air resistance → constant velocity
• On a v-t graph: curve increases, then levels off at terminal velocity
2.7 Momentum
📌 Formula
Momentum (p) = mass x velocity p = mv
Units: kg m/s Momentum is a VECTOR quantity.
Conservation of Momentum
📌 Law of Conservation
In a closed system with no external forces, total momentum before = total momentum after a
collision.
p_before = p_after (m1 x u1) + (m2 x u2) = (m1 x v1) + (m2 x v2)
Impulse
📌 Impulse
Impulse = Force x time = F x t Units: N s
Impulse = change in momentum = m(v - u)
A larger time of contact reduces the force needed to produce the same change in
momentum (e.g., crumple zones, airbags).
Worked Example — Momentum
📊 Worked Example
A 0.5 kg ball moving at 6 m/s hits a wall and bounces back at 4 m/s.
Change in momentum = m(v - u) = 0.5 x (-4 - 6) = 0.5 x (-10) = -5 kg m/s
Magnitude of change = 5 kg m/s (direction reversed, hence negative)
2.8 Work, Energy and Power
📌 Key Formulae
Work done (W) = Force x distance in direction of force W = Fd Units: J (joules)
Kinetic energy: KE = 1/2 mv^2 Units: J
Gravitational PE: GPE = mgh Units: J
Power (P) = Work done / time = W / t Units: W (watts)
Energy Conservation in Motion
• Loss in GPE = Gain in KE (if no friction): mgh = 1/2 mv^2
• With friction: some energy is converted to thermal energy (heat)
• Efficiency = (useful energy output / total energy input) x 100%
Worked Examples
📊 Worked Examples
1. A 2 kg ball falls 5 m. Find its speed just before hitting the ground (assume no air
resistance).
GPE lost = KE gained: mgh = 1/2 mv^2
2 x 10 x 5 = 1/2 x 2 x v^2 → 100 = v^2 → v = 10 m/s
2. A force of 50 N moves an object 8 m. Work done = 50 x 8 = 400 J
3. If this took 20 s: Power = 400 / 20 = 20 W
2.9 Gravitational Field Strength and Free Fall
• g = 10 N/kg on Earth (or 10 m/s^2 as gravitational acceleration)
• Free fall: an object falling under gravity only (no air resistance) — accelerates at g = 10 m/s^2
• On the Moon: g = 1.6 N/kg — objects weigh less but mass is the same
📌 Equations of Motion (SUVAT)
Using equations of motion (uniform acceleration):
v = u + at
s = ut + 1/2 at^2
v^2 = u^2 + 2as
where: u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, a = acceleration, t = time, s = displacement
2.10 Hooke's Law and Springs
📌 Formula
Hooke's Law: The extension of a spring is directly proportional to the applied force, provided
the elastic limit is not exceeded.
F = k x e where k = spring constant (N/m), e = extension (m)
• Spring constant (k): stiffness of the spring — greater k means stiffer spring
• Elastic deformation: spring returns to original length when force is removed
• Plastic (inelastic) deformation: spring does NOT return to original length — elastic limit
exceeded
• On a force-extension graph: straight line through origin = Hooke's Law obeyed; curve = elastic
limit exceeded
2.11 Pressure
📌 Formula
Pressure = Force / Area P=F/A Units: Pa (pascals) or N/m^2
1 Pa = 1 N/m^2
• Increasing area decreases pressure (e.g., snowshoes, camel hooves, tractor tyres)
• Decreasing area increases pressure (e.g., knife blade, drawing pin, stiletto heels)
Pressure in Fluids
📌 Fluid Pressure Formula
Pressure in a fluid: P = h x rho x g
where h = depth (m), rho = density of fluid (kg/m^3), g = gravitational field strength (N/kg)
• Pressure increases with depth in a fluid
• Pressure acts in all directions at any given depth
• Atmospheric pressure: caused by the weight of the air above — approximately 100 000 Pa (100
kPa)