PPC 510: PEACE AND CONFLICT: THEORY & PRACTICE

SOCIAL FRAMEWORKS OF CONFLICT

Social Perspective of Conflict

“social conflict is an expressed struggle between two and more interdependent
parties who perceive scarce resources, incompatible goals and interference” (Hocker
and Wilmot) Analysis:
An expressed struggle: Communication and conflict are inextricably tied
How one communicates in a conflict situation has profound implications for
the residual impact of that conflict.
Communication and conflict are related in the following ways:
Communication behaviour often creates conflict
Communication behaviour reflects conflict.
Communication is the vehicle for the productive or destructive management
of conflict.
Conflict is expressed through many forms of communication
Therefore, by observing behaviours of individuals, groups and institutions
one is able to determine the likelihood of conflict
This is where an early warning system is made possible.
Between two or more inter-dependent parties:
This assumes that conflict happens in relationships.
Understanding the history and interactive pattern of the relationship as well
as level of interdependency or power relations of the parties is critical to the
analysis of and intervention in the conflict.
By identifying common elements between conflicting parties and emphasising
their commonality one is able to room for bridge building or peacebuilding.
Who perceive:
Conflict whether material, value-based or interest-based is rooted largely in the
way the parties view the conflict.
Perception, which is socially constructed is reality
It is vital to the differing views and goals that parties bring to the conflict.

Perception can be clarified and adjusted.

Dialogue through cooperative communication can help in reconciling
perceptions.
Scarce resources:
Basic human needs are non-negotiable and indispensable
Deprivation of needs is one source of conflict
Needs are physical, material or social i.e. belonging to a group or the need to
interact.
They are political when being part of the decision making process which affects
one‟s existence
Resources available to satisfy needs and wants are perceived to be scarce.

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 Groups therefore, scramble for these scarce resources, thus, conflict persists
POLITICAL PERSPECTIVE OF CONFLICT
“Conflict is an escalated competition at any system level between groups whose aim is to
gain advantage in the area of power, resources, interests and needs and at least one of the
groups believes that this dimension of the relationship is mutually incompatible.” (Jim
Laue)
An escalated Competition:
Realists and Functionalists assume that conflict is functional to all societies and
therefore necessary.
Society must create healthy conflicts or competition to catalyse growth and
development.
Governments, therefore, are not bothered about conflict once it is within controlled
boundaries.
Even violent conflicts do not inspire intervention from the state unless they
threaten the „perceived‟ power or legitimacy of the state.
States assume that their existence depends almost entirely on their capacity to
unleash violence on any perceived or real threat.
At any system level:
Politics is not concerned with inter-personal conflicts unless these conflicts disrupt
the system.
Intervention is on the basis of protecting the system and not individuals.
Within the system people are reduced to statistics.
It is an impersonal process where laws, not perceptions or emotions are
recognised.
Between groups:
The aspiration of a group, not individuals is negotiated in political conflicts.
The power of the leader who is invited to the negotiating table depends on
the size and power of the constituency he/she represents.
Whose aim is to gain advantage:
Win/loss is often the lens used in political conflicts.
One group struggles to over-power the other.
Success is seen in one‟s ability to conquer the other.
In the area of power, resources, interest and needs:
To dominate the other, control access to the resources and ensure that one‟s
personal interests and needs are satisfied even at the detriment of the other.
Little effort is made to explore alternative measures that will allow both
conflicting groups to achieve mutual satisfaction.
This is because „at least one of the groups believe that this dimension of the
relationship is based on mutually incompatible goals‟
“Conflict is present when two or more parties perceive their interests are incompatible,
express hostile attitudes or …pursue their interests through actions that damage the other
parties. These parties may be individuals, small groups or large groups and countries”
(Lund, 1997)

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According to Lund, (1997) INTERESTS can differ over:
Access to and distribution of resources e.g. money, energy sources, food, minerals,
oil, land, power etc
Control of power and participation in political decision making.
Identity, concerning cultural, social and political communities to which people feel
associated.
Status, particularly those embodied in systems of government, religion or ideology
Deutsch (1973:10) defines conflict as “existing whenever incompatible activities occur”
Coser, (1968:232) “ Conflict is a struggle over values or claims to status, power and
scarce resources, in which the aims of the conflicting parties are not only to gain the
desired values but also to neutralise injure or eliminate their lives”
Katz and Lawyer, (1993) “ for conflict to arise the actions of one party must affect
another, if they do not, differences would exist, but conflict would not.”
WEEK 4: FUNDAMENTALS OF PEACEBUILDING
Session objectives:
 Discuss theories and models of peacebuilding
 Processes of peacemaking and peacebuilding
 Integrated frames of peacebuilding
 UN & Regional frameworks of peacebuilding
 Ethics of peacemaking & peacebuilding Conceptualising Peacebuilding
 Rooted in the UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros Ghali-An Agenda for Peace
 UN responsibilities and responses to contemporary armed conflict
 Proposed 4 areas of activity
 Preventive diplomacy
 Peacemaking
 Peacekeeping
 Post-conflict peacebuilding
 UN conceptualisation of peacebuilding
 Post-conflict support for peace accords and rebuilding war-torn societies  Is
peace-building limited to post-conflict reconstruction?
 No-peacebuilding should be conceptualised as a short-medium and long term
process of recovery and reconstruction Re-conceptualisation of peacebuilding:-
John Paul Lederach (1997) argues that:
 „Comprehensive concept that encompasses, generates and sustains an array of
processes, approaches and stages needed to transform conflict toward more
sustainable peaceful relationships.‟
Analysis
 More than post-accord reconstruction
 Array of initiatives, activities and functions
 Dynamic social construct and process
 Requires investment-resources
 Planning, coordination, implementation, monitoring and evaluation
 Requires a holistic conceptual framework or architecture

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Discourses on Peacebuilding
 Genealogy of peacebuilding rooted in the origins of peace research writings of
Johan Galtung and Kenneth and Elise Boulding
 Focus on – underlying structural causes of conflict
 Bottom-up approaches
 Decentring of social and economic structures
 Radical transformation of society from structures of coercion and violence to
cultures of peace
Lederach‟s theory & model
 Peacebuilding as a process &problem solving approach to CR  Process
comprising roles and functions
 Peacebuilding as a dynamic process built on:
 Progression of conflict
 Multiplicity of interdependent roles, functions & activities
 Public, process-oriented approaches
 Multi-sectoral approach responsive to the multi-dimensional nature of protracted
social conflicts
 Grassroots, government, NGOs, regional and international stakeholders
 What is the objective Lederach‟s holistic peacebuilding approach-model
 Transformation of conflict-ridden societies
 Search for responsive programs, policies and practices towards sustainable peace
What is then goal of peacebuilding?
 Create and sustain transformation Adam Curle matrix of understanding:
 Conflict as progression
 Peacebuilding more than cease-fire or agreements or negotiations
 Multiplicity of roles and functions
 Linking immediate, short-term and long term goals Re-conceptualising
Peacebuilding Issues:
 Time frames for planning and action
 Linkages of peacebuilding processes Nested Paradigm:
Immediate action(2-6mths)-short range planning (1-2yrs)-decade thinking (5-
10yrs)generational vision (20+yrs)
Nested Paradigm
 CRISIS INTERVENTION>PREPARATIONA & TRAINING>DESIGN OF
SOCIAL CHANGE>DESIRED FUTURE
PEACEBUILDING-AN INTEGRATED FRAME ISSUES:
 Structure-comprehensive
 Systematic analysis-issues, affected populations
 Process-creative thing about progression of conflict
 Sustainability-of transformation or changes
 Linkages-roles, functions
Analysis of the Integrated Model of Peacebuilding
 ROOT CAUSES

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 CRISIS MANAGEMENT
 PREVENTION

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 VISION
 TRANSFORMATION
 Capacity to think about design of social change-time frame
 Transformation-Lederach
 Understand crisis issues and their dynamics
 Recognise integrative potential of mid-range leaders
 Levels of transformation
 Descriptive –empirical impact of conflict
 Prescriptive- deliberate intervention to effect change
 Personal dimension-effect on individuals
 Relational dimension-relational affectivity, interdependence
 Structural dimension-underlying causes of conflict-patternscontent, substance of
conflict
 Cultural dimension-cultural patterns changes, handling of conflict UN &
Regional Frameworks for Peace-building
 Traced to the 1990s official discourses-former UN Secretary-General Boutros
Boutros Ghali-AGENDA for PEACE
 Concept of Post-conflict peacebuilding
 Action to identify and support structures to strengthen and solidify peace and
avoid relapse into conflict
 Preventive diplomacy, peacemaking, peacekeeping integral to peacebuilding
 Boutros Boutros Ghali‟s Peace-building Strategy
 Disarming warring parties
 Restoring order
 Decommissioning and weapons destruction
 De-mining and demilitarisation
 Repatriation of refugees
 Advisory and training of security personnel
 Monitoring & electoral supervision
 Promoting formal and informal political participation
 Educational exchange & curriculum reform
Global discourses on Peacebuilding
 G-8 and the significance of Conflict Prevention-Berlin 1999
 G-8 adopted Miyazaki initiatives for Conflict Prevention
([Link]
[Link]/[Link]/en/infoservice/download/pdf/friedenspolitik/miyazaki_konfl.pdf)
 The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) –
effectiveness of aid for conflict prevention
 Carnegie Commission on the Prevention of Deadly Conflicts  Viewed
peacebuilding as either:
 STRUCTURAL PREVENTION (strategies designed to address root causes of
deadly conflict) OR

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 OPERATIONAL PREVENTION ( strategies and tactics taken in the midst of

crisis or immediately thereafter to reconstruct peace and prevent a relapse into
conflict)
 STRUCTURAL PEACEBUILDING
 OPERATIONAL PEACEBUILDING
Role of International & Regional Financial Institutions in Peacebuilding
 The World Bank-heavily involved in global peacebuilding efforts
 Regional and local community empowerment in local governance
 Key questions: whether financial institutions are contributing to peace or not
 Issues of conditionalities which impede reconstruction efforts in post-conflict
countries
 Broadening Scale & Scope of Peacebuilding
 Encompasses an array of development issues
 UN Development –contribution of economic and sustainable development efforts
to peacebuilding
 Challenges approaches that treat peacebuilding as an insular/narrow & isolated
activity
 Inclusion of national, regional & international dynamics to analyses of
peacebuilding
 Role of international actors to peacebuilding  Analysis – the Practice of
Peacebuilding  Include strategies at two levels:
 Regional and international actors
 Principles, norms, rules and practices of peacebuilding
 In-country peacebuilding
 National & local efforts
 Governmental and civil society actors
 Aimed at economic development
 Institution building
 Peace and stability
 North-South Dimensions of Peacebuilding Operations  What is the role of the
South in peacebuilding?
 Interventions continue to reflect asymmetrical distributions of power where the
North determine WHERE, WHEN & the HOW aspects of intervention
 Need for active participation of partners in the SOUTH in setting peacebuilding
agendas & strategies

Regional Efforts in Africa

 West Africa- ECOWAS & ECOMOG
 SADC initiatives
 Initiatives in the Horn
 The Great Lakes region Regional Challenges
 Lack of effective regional and international resources to support reconstruction/
peacebuilding efforts

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  Proliferation of small arms
 Economic dislocations
 Civ-pol operational complications-separation of powers National Interests in
Peacebuilding Discourses
To what extent do national interests shape or guide interventions
 Interventions that support peacebuilding efforts challenge the whole concept of
insular national interests
 Strengthen norms of human and individual rights and security
 Are national interests crucial to processes of intervention and peacebuilding?
 Setting the agenda for local peacebuilding initiatives
 Identification of priorities and needs
 Necessary for resource mobilisation
 Make peacebuilding initiatives visible Civil/Military Approaches to
Peacebuilding
 Recognition of tensions that exist between civil-military relations during
peacebuilding
 Problems-discerning clear division of labour between military and civilian
operations
 Striking a balance between military forces and civilian activities
 Need for cooperative civil-military approaches to peacebuilding
Peacebuilding as a Human Security Issue
 Recognition of peacebuilding as a human security issue
 A foreign policy priority
 Personal security-shifts from conflict to post-conflict conditions
 Recognition that conflict and post-conditions can disrupt personal security
 Recognition for commitment and security guarantees that touch lives of
individuals
 Recognition of the differing security needs of men, women, youth, children
 Ending the fighting and restoring peace does not necessarily guarantee security in
all cases-Crime
Contested nature of national interests in the peacebuilding agenda
 Can distort peacebuilding objectives, priorities, activities and operations
 Undermine efforts to retain impartiality
 Issues of ethnocentricism, nepotism, paternalism, clientelism & partisan loyalty
 Need to consider the effects of peacebuilding practices on gender and ethnicity
 Need to shift from looking at peacebuilding as a discrete activity to viewing it
within the broader conception of human security governance
 Need to place individuals and not just sovereign states at the heart of international
humanitarian relations

Session objectives
 Conceptualisations of conflict and conflict models
 Discuss theories of the causes of conflict

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 Discuss assumptions, issues and frameworks

 Identify cross-cutting issues among the theories
 Apply theories to different societal contexts
Galtung‟s Models of Conflict, Violence and Peace
ABC MODEL OF CONFLICT
Conflict viewed as a Triangle which encompassing both symmetric and asymmetric
conflicts
A. CONTRADICTION-presents underlying conflict situations i.e. actual and
perceived „incompatible goals‟ between conflict parties
 Contradictions generated by mismatch between social values and social structure
(Mitchell, 1981:18)
 Symmetric conflict contradictions defined by a clash of interests between conflict
parties
 Asymmetric conflict contradictions defined by the parties, their relationship and
conflict interests inherent in the relationship
B. ATTITUDES- perceptions and misperceptions of each other-positive or negative
 Negative stereotypes influenced by emotive (feelings) cognitive (belief) cognitive
(will) -fear, anger, hatred
C. BEHAVIOUR- cooperation or coercion
 Gestures signifying conciliation or hostility, threats, coercion or violent attacks
For Galtung all three components have to be present in a full conflict
 Conflict structure without conflict behaviour or attitude is LATENT (Structural)
 Conflict- dynamic process-attitudes, behaviour and contradictions constantly
changing
Galtung‟s Theory of Violence
Resembles manifestation of conflict dynamics
 DIRECT violence-people are killed, murdered
 STRUCTURAL violence-people die from hunger or through poverty related
issues
 CULTURAL violence-whatever blinds us to seek justice How do we end
violence?
 Change conflict behaviours, attitudes and injustices
Galtung‟s Theory of Peace
Represents strategies to end violence
 Peacekeeping-stop violence
 Peacemaking-peace agreements
 Peacebuilding-reconstruction and nurturing of peace Galtung‟s conceptualisation
of PEACE
 Negative peace- cessation of direct violence
 Positive peace-transforming structural and cultural violence
CONFLICT THEORIES
 Individual level theories
– Sociobiological theories

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 – Frustration Aggression Theory (FAT)
– Social Learning
– Psychological theories
– Psychoanalytical theories
– Relative Deprivation (RD)
– Human needs Theories (HBN)  Societal Theories
Why conflict theories?
 Conflict has often been attributed to various reasons in history.
 Conflict theories attempt an explanation of the causes of conflict and its nature.
Theoretical perspectives on conflict also inform conflict intervention approaches
Individual Level theories: Micro Theories of Conflict
 Assumptions of the micro theories of conflict are that the root causes of war lie in
human nature and human behaviour
 Another assumption is that an important relationship exists between intra-personal
conflict and conflict that pervades the external social order
Konrad Lorenz on Aggression
 Lorenz (1966), a German biologist and ethnologist discusses the concept of
aggression in humans
 He posits that aggressive human behaviour reflects survival-enhancing instinct.
 Lorenz gives a vivid description of behavior patterns observed in a wide variety
of animals
 He argues that humans, like all other animal, are endowed with fixed patterns of
behaviour oriented towards self-preservation.
 Lorenz‟s arguments, in essence, are such that humans, are by instinct aggressive
 In Seville, Spain in 1986, a group of scientists met to explore the sources of
human aggression. They declared that there was no scientific basis for
considering human beings as innately aggressive animals, inevitably committed to
war on the basis of their biological nature.
 Rather, they said that war was a result of socialization, conditioning, and a
phenomenon of human organization.
Response to Lorenz
 However, there are questions regarding Lorenz‟s presentation
 There is the argument that humans are not instinctively aggressive. Aggression in
humans is driven by external stimuli and by biological needs for survival rather
than mere inter-species aggression (Harcourt: 1991)
 Fighting within the human species results from rivalry over resources and
competition
 This means that humans are not necessarily innately evil nor biologically
aggressive
 Perspectives on biological and instinctive origins of violence ignore problems
rooted in the organization and development of society. Human behaviour has
profound social roots. Political, economic and ideological structures have an
impact on human interaction

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Socio-biology (Edward Wilson, 1975)

 Wilson discussed the concept of warfare in his book. He sees organized warfare
as endemic to every form of society from hunter gatherers to modern industrial
society
 Wilson argues that humans‟ aggressiveness has added to their genetic fitness.
 For Wilson, aggression is a contingency plan for human beings, a set of features
to be summoned in times of stress.
 The bottom line for Wilson is that human beings are “predisposed to slide into
deep, irrational hostility under certain definable conditions
Critique of Sociobiology
 Anthropologists are chief critics of Wilson whom they say tends to give more weight
to genetics.

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They argue that human behaviour, although biologically determined, is largely a
result of the influence of the environment, culture and learning.
 There is also evidence pointing out the existence of peaceful societies. They are
deemed peaceful due to the absence of war on their territories or with other
groups, absence of violence at community level or interpersonal level and no
standing/organized army.
 These include the Mbuti pygmies of DRC, the Batwa of Uganda, the Ogiek of
Kenya, the Copper Eskimos of Northern Canada, the Amish of USA, the Kung
Bushmen of the Kalahari, Namibia etc.
Frustration-Aggression Theory
 An excessive level of frustration is accumulates when an organism is blocked in
pursuit of a goal
 According to the FAT, human beings, as goal oriented organisms, naturally
become aggravated when they are prevented from achieving what they desire
 Consequently, there is natural build up of blocked energy which seeks to be
released and aggressive action is directed to the source of frustration
 FAT therefore suggests that external stimuli induces frustration which in turn
precipitates aggression
 If aggression cannot be expressed against the real source of the frustration,
displaced hostilities can be targeted to substitutive objects
 In some cases, antagonistic behaviour may be reduced by finding alternative
means of releasing the frustration e.g. through humour, drama etc (Ho-Won
Jeong: 2002)
Frustration-Aggression
 Widespread aggression among a population can be manipulated by political
leaders in directing hostilities towards minority groups within society
 It is argued that Hitler‟s attacks on Jews and other ethnic minorities were used to
divert the publics attention away from bad economic conditions in the early1930s
 Societal stress and violence can be generated by frustrated expectations related to
urbanization or economic depression
Critique of Frustration-Aggression theory
 The extent to which frustration causes aggression is not certain (Glossop:1993)
 Human behaviour is affected by the social environment, and frustrated feelings
can be controlled through various adaptive mechanisms
 People can be educated to behave differently under conditions of frustration e.g.
training on Conflict Transformation, Anger Management etc
 Cultural settings also influence patterns of behaviour as demonstrated by
experiences of non-aggressive societies
 The limitations of the frustration-aggression theory led to the subsequent
development of the Social Learning Theory

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Social Learning Theory
 Based on the hypothesis that aggression is not innate or instinctual but that it is
actually learned through the process of socialization
 Albert Bandura, a behaviorist, is the chief proponent of the Social learning theory
who maintains that aggression is learned from the social environment through
direct experience or by observing the behaviour of others.
The hypothesis is the contention of the Seville Statement.
 One acquires aggressive attributes by learning them at home, in school and by
interaction with the environment in general.
 Interaction in society helps focus and trigger stored aggression onto enemies
 Socialization into a violent environment has detrimental effects on childhood
development. It is a precursor to aggressive and anti-social behaviour in adult
years.
Social Learning Theory
 If aggressive responses to the environmental stimuli are met with approval by
peers and elders, then aggression is reinforced.
 On the other hand, if aggression is met with rejection, reprimands and lack of
approval, then aggression will be reduced
 In most of the USA films, there is tendency to approve of aggression e.g. heroes
are men of violence who settle disputes outside the normal legal institutions e.g.
Arnold Schwartzeneggar, Sylvester Stallone etc
 Other American Heroes include Las Vegas‟ Mike Tyson Snoopy Doggy Dog,
Notorious B.I.G, Presidents Bush (Jr and Sr)
 In such a way, it is arguable that people learn violence from their environment
and culture
 Social learning theory reminds us that individuals are quite frequently, the
products of their environments.
Social Identity Theory
 Developed by psychologist, Henri Tajfel
 Posits that we create our social identities in order to simplify our external
relations.
 There is a human need for positive self-esteem and self-worth, which we transfer
to our own groups
 We also order our environment by social comparison between groups.
 The concept of in-groups and out-groups is important in this analysis
 Identity boundaries between in groups and out groups are established by a
subjective group consciousness
 Constructivists regard identity as manufactured rather than as given. Identity
emerges from a dialectic between similarity and difference in group interaction
 Identity can be used instrumentally to promote individual or collective interests
 In their struggle for power, competing elites use ethnicity as a tool to mobilize
popular support

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 Ethnic and religious differences are not in themselves causes of conflict, but the
salience of group identity is awakened by socially derived inequalities in material
wellbeing and political access
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)- Psychoanalysis
 For Freud, violence has always been a final arbiter of human conflicts. This is
rooted in our basic nature as animals, and is slightly controlled by our advanced
civilization
 Freud argues that humans are governed by instincts, which of two basic kinds: the
sexual and destructive.
Such instincts never operate separately or in isolation, they are always blended so
that opposite tendencies within our nature may be expressed.
 Life and death instincts are part of human nature
Sigmund Freud – Death Wish Hypothesis
 Freud attributes aggressive impulses to frustration generated by the inhibition of a
child‟s sexuality directed toward the parent of the opposite sex – the so-called
Oedipus complex (Brill 1938, pg. 906-909).
 At a much later date, Freud suggested an additional source of aggression – the
socalled “death-wish”, the longing of every living being to revert to its original
state of non-being.
 This drive to self-destruction is however opposed to the drive to self-preservation.
Therefore, the drive is directed elsewhere (outward) and manifests itself to wreck
havoc and destruction on others. “Reference; “Civilization and its Discontents,”
Freud
Relative Deprivation theory
 Relative deprivation results from the combined effect of rising expectations and
lack of progress towards demands for a better life
 RD is defined as “actors‟ perception of discrepancy between their value
expectations and value capabilities.
 Value expectations lead people to believe that they are rightfully entitled to
certain goods and conditions of life
 Value capabilities are the goods and conditions that they think are capable of
getting and keeping (GURR:1970)
 An intolerable gap between the anticipated reality and the manifest reality of life
conditions serves as a precondition for widespread unrest
 Subjective factors are important in understanding the perceptions of deprivation
 Unrest and violence do not necessarily occur in deprived or impoverished
societies
 It is the “dissatisfied state of the mind” rather than the tangible supply of goods or
social conditions that produce political stability and violence
 Rising expectations and unmet social conditions increase the intensity of feelings
of deprivation

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 Disproportionate allocation of resources generates further anger and emotional
frustration. A reference to what other groups have brings about more intense
levels of dissatisfaction
 Rapid social change, coupled with uneven distribution of wealth and power, tends
to generate feelings of a growing gap between un-materialized expectations and
perceptions about existing economic, social and political conditions
 Violent uprisings are likely to take place when people‟s wants and desires grow
further away from what they can obtain.
Societal level Theories
 “The common folk do not go to war on their own accord. They are driven to it by
the madness of kings” – Sir Thomas Moore
 “What can war but endless wars create?” – J. Milton; (Poet)
Societal Theories
 Focuses on the interaction of groups, specifically on the conscious level.
Focuses on factors such power, ethnicity, politics, economics and ideology
 Analyses group relations
Society and conflict dynamics
 In most conflict, inequality in political and economic power between different
groups generates conditions for polarization and violence
 Conflict can also be as a result of strain and fragmentation of the social fabric
 On the political side, state weakness, collapse or withdrawal can also cause
conflict
 Solutions to conflict would eventually have to be grounded in structural
arrangements that address political, social and economic challenges
Relational Theory
 Conflict is a result of interaction between different men and women and/or
groups with differing cultural orientations, values, and interests
 Conflict is innate in the nature of men and women and therefore characterises the
way they behave while interacting with others
 Conflict is a consequence of poor communication or miscommunication and
misperception
 'Otherness' resulting from the natural discomfort of encountering people or groups
different from self or one's group can lead to conflict
 Groups tend to protect their boundaries for fear of losing their identity or being
invaded by other groups
 One group perceiving one or several of their inter-relationships with other groups
as illegitimate; e.g. indigenous vs. settler conflicts
 History or shared memory of groups influences the way they perceive and interact
with others
 Conflicts generated from individual or group interaction include stereotype and
prejudice, miscommunication, xenophobia, symbols, etc.
Summary:

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 The relational theory attempts to understand ethnic or identity-based conflicts that
have overwhelmed a number of countries. Why do people resent those who are
different from them?
 At the sociological level it is proven that difference challenges one's identity
formation process. From perceiving oneself as the centre of the world, the
presence of another person or group challenges one to rethink this identity as
sharing the centre with another person.
 Political economy helps us to also understand the tension between groups. It
shows that groups who share a common resource are likely to engage in violent
conflict more than groups who do not. Scrambling for limited shared resource can
lead groups to want to eliminate, injure, or neutralise the other.
 History of the groups and their relationship can also explain the way they interact.
Violent historical relation can perpetuate the divide and may entrench the
dehumanisation of the other. Common indicators of social divide among groups
include stereotypes and prejudice.
Politics and War
 War between nations or within nations involves at some point some government
decisions
Decisions to go to war are frequently made by cabinets, politburos or committees
 Policy making is a group activity
 The search for causes of war leads us to examine the role of group decision
making processes in war
 It is the structures of groups and decision making processes rather than
perceptions of individuals involved that have a decisive effect on government
decisions.
Political Theory assumes
 The state is the sole context where various groups or individuals are competing to
take advantage of others. They often believe that they will only gain access to
the state when others are eliminated or disabled.
 Power, which is perceived to be a critical currency for the gratification  of
dignity, recognition, freedom, etc, is often contested for by groups. » 
Conflict is a consequence of:
– Failed or weak state
– The absence of regime legitimacy
– Poor Governance
 Anarchical international systems based on competing national interests are either
behind violent intra/inter state conflicts or fuel the conflicts once they erupt.
 A contingent result of psycho-political dynamics of misperceptions and identity
crisis of political leaders; Psycho-political pathologies of men and women leaders
have taken nations to senseless wars.
 A system-induced clash of economic and political interests between the centre
and peripheries; this relationship is not only one between former colonies and

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
their former colonisers; it is between capital cities which are the seat of politics
and dispersed communities.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 According to Abraham Maslow (AM) and John Burton, BHN go beyond the
conventional needs for food, shelter and clothing.
 They include physical and psychological (non-physical) elements required for
human growth and development.
 Self Esteem: The need to be recognized by oneself and others as strong,
competent, and capable. It also includes the need to know that one has some
effect on her/his environment;
 Need to Know and Understand: Need to know, understand and explore. Aesthetic
Needs: Need for symmetry, order and beauty;
 Self Actualization: To find self-fulfilment, and realize one‟s potential;
 Transcendence: To connect to something beyond the ego or to help others find
self-fulfilment and realize their potential

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BHN IN CONFLICT THEORY
 Personal Fulfillment: The need to reach one‟s potential in all areas of life; 
Identity: A sense of self in relation to the outside world.
 Cultural Security: The need for recognition of one‟s language, traditions,
religion, cultural values, ideas and concepts.
BHN IN CONFLICT THEORY
 Freedom: The condition of having no physical, political, or civil restraints. The
capacity to to exercise choice in all aspects of life.
 Distributive Justice: The need for a fair allocation of resources among all
members of a community.
 Participation: The need to be able to actively participate in and influence civil
society.
 Manfred Max-Neef postulates that the inadequate satisfaction of any of the
fundamental human needs generates pathology. The pathology can be described
both in economic and political terms. Economically the pathology is expressed as
unemployment, hyperinflation, and poor quality of life. At the political level the
pathology can be expressed as fear or xenophobia, crime or violence, exile and
marginalisation. At the heart of the Needs Theory, Max-Neef says is the tension
between deprivation and potential. This tension embeds needs-based conflicts.
 Basic human needs are physical, psychological, social and spiritual needs without
which existence is impossible

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 Recognition, identity, security, autonomy and bonding are what John Burton calls
non-negotiable human needs
 Human needs are not transmitted by a particular culture or implanted or taught by
local institutions. They are universally expressed. Every man, woman and child is
aware of them. The articulation of what they represent to each individual is what
is learned. E.g. we all get hungry, but how to say "I am hungry" both verbally or
non-verbally can be learned.
 Human needs are irrepressible, demanding satisfaction no matter how a society's
regime may seek to suppress or manipulate them. This point is critical in any
conflict situation or any society. States have proven to fail in their attempts to
suppress the needs of their citizens. In most cases regimes are violently removed
when the society sees no other way to prove that no one person or institution can
repress the needs of others.
 Basic human needs can be satisfied differently; their 'satisfiers' differ from context
to context and person to person and are gendered in nature.
 Lack of access not necessarily the unavailability of 'satisfiers' of need, is a major
catalyst to violent expression of a need-based conflict; this is also called Relative
Deprivation.
Why BHN Approach?
 Provides a conceptual tool that connects and addresses HN at all levels;
 Recognizes the existence of negotiable issues, theorists understand that needs, unlike
interests, cannot be suppressed or negotiated,
 Allows for the consideration of non-negotiable issues.
 Supports collaborative
Transformative Theory
 Conflict is caused by systemic and structural injustice and inequality expressed by
competing social, cultural, economic, religious, and political frameworks.
 Structural factors also encompass tangible or symbolic resources like traditional
institutions, beliefs, practices, government institutions and laws.
 Conflict is a consequence of the way some societies are structured; For Example:
 o Economic and political systems tend to favour one group over the
 other
 o Cultures-tend to be exclusive and unwelcoming to others and
 new ideas
 o Political and economic structures used to govern the society
 are alien to it
 Transformation addresses how men and women, cultures, institutions, and society
respond to change.
 Structures are slow to change.
 They are sometimes static while demographic, environmental, economic and social
changes are taking place.
 The tension between static institutions and structures and the dynamic change
processes in people, perceptions, the environment, etc. is a source of conflict.

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 For example: While population increases, institutions that provide social services
remain the same.
 An agriculture-based society like Zimbabwe may have many to feed but the soil is
increasingly becoming infertile.
 Nearly all African countries are still producing primary goods although this
economic system is disadvantageous to the current system of globalisation.
 There are two sources of change: Endogenous and Exogenous.
 Endogenous change takes place within.
 It is not imposed.
 It is a product of the inherent regenerative capacity of the society. Endogenous
change happens out of encounters.
 Every encounter presents opportunities for learning, for growth, for development.
 It will take a reflective person or society to identify the lessons that those encounters
present.
 When the lessons are identified and the society learns from them, new meanings are
constructed from which the society forms new attitudes and eventually, new cultures
and structures.
 Exogenous change is driven from outside.
 It assumes that existing cultures, structures, systems, instruments, etc. in another
society are flawed and must be replaced immediately with new ones that are
inherently different from the ones known by the society to be changed.
 Exogenous change comes from an encounter with an individual or another society in
which that individual or society feels obliged to impose its way of life on the other
group.
 Usually the outsider is convinced that the change will be for the good of the other.
Relationship of Conflict, Nationalism, Citizenship, democratic Processes &
Political Communities
 Conflict is fast becoming Urbanite hence Urban terrorism
 Conflict distorts & disintegrates Nation States (Somalia)
 Increased political migrants Globally
 Creation of extreme fanaticism
 Autocracy/Dictatorships are entrenched
 Loss of Refined Human Labour
 Loss of Citizenship
 Increased Small Arms Proliferation thus Insecurity Is there hope for Peace?
 Karl Marx observed that Conflict is Good because it brings about Equality, and
Democracy as privileges of the elite are scraped
 Conflict exists for as long as there are differences, thus it is Natural
 Conflict can be Positive
 Global efforts are geared towards creating a world of Peace (AU, UN, etc) e.g.
Peace keeping initiatives by the UN ( DRC, Darfur, Liberia, Somalia, Angola….
 There is a growing trend for Women involvement in Settlement of Conflict

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 The promotion of Alternative Dispute Resolutions (ADR) is a clear indication that Hope
is at the end of the Gloomy tunnel
Implications for Public service Management of Conflict in Global Politics
 There is need to fulfill Individual HNs
 Accommodate Individual Differences
 Public Sector Managers must cater for the HNs of the disadvantaged
 Observe International protocols on Human (Workers) Rights
 Promote Good Governance : Administrative Capacity, Transparency and Accountability
 Bad practices would lead to increased expenditures due to:
 Loss of Human Capital
 Upsurge of Refugees
Proposed revision Questions
1. a) Using any two (2) Conflict theories, illustrate how those theories describe the
prevalence of Human Conflict.
b) What is the importance of Conflict theories in (a) Peace Leadership and
Governance (b) Public Sector Management.

2. The absence of War does not mean Peace. Critically analyse this statement.

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