UNIT–I : NATURE AND SCOPE OF PHYSICS Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Physics (Definition) • For every action there is an equal and opposite

• Physics is the branch of science that deals with the reaction.
study of matter, energy, space and time. • Forces always act in pairs.
• It explains natural phenomena using observation, Example: Recoil of a gun, walking.
experimentation and mathematical laws. Work
Nature of Physics • Work is said to be done when a force produces
• Experimental science based on observation and displacement.
verification. • It depends on force and displacement.
• Quantitative science expressed through laws, Equation: W = Fs
formulas and equations. Unit: Joule
Aims of Teaching Physics Energy
• To develop scientific attitude and logical thinking. • Energy is the capacity to do work.
• To help learners understand natural laws and their • It exists in various forms like mechanical, heat and
applications. electrical energy.
Values of Teaching Physics Types of Energy
• Intellectual value: develops reasoning power. • Kinetic energy: energy due to motion, KE = ½mv²
• Practical value: helps in daily life applications like • Potential energy: energy due to position, PE = mgh
electricity and machines. Power
UNIT–II : MECHANICS • Power is the rate of doing work.
Physical Quantities • It tells how fast work is done.
• Physical quantity is a measurable property of a body Equation: P = W/t
or phenomenon. Unit: Watt
• It is expressed using a numerical value and a unit. Law of Conservation of Energy
Types of Physical Quantities • Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
• Scalar quantities: have magnitude only (mass, time, • It can only be transformed from one form to another.
temperature). Example: Falling body converts potential energy into
• Vector quantities: have magnitude and direction kinetic energy.
(force, velocity, acceleration). UNIT–III : PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Motion Elasticity
• Motion is the change in position of an object with • Elasticity is the property of a material to regain its
respect to time. original shape after deformation.
• It is described using distance, displacement, speed and • It depends on the nature of material.
velocity. Stress and Strain
Types of Motion • Stress = Force / Area
• Rectilinear motion: motion in a straight line (train on • Strain = Change in length / Original length
track). Young’s Modulus
• Circular motion: motion along a circular path (fan). • It is the ratio of stress to strain.
• Oscillatory motion: repeated to and fro motion Equation: Y = Stress / Strain
(pendulum). Example: Steel is more elastic than rubber.
Equations of Motion Surface Tension
• v = u + at • Surface tension is the force acting per unit length on
• s = ut + ½at² the surface of a liquid.
• v² = u² + 2as • It causes liquid surfaces to behave like stretched
Newton’s First Law of Motion membranes.
• A body remains at rest or in uniform motion unless Unit: N/m
acted upon by an external force. Example: Water droplets are spherical.

Equation: F = 0 ⇒ v = constant
• It explains the property of inertia. Viscosity
• Viscosity is the resistance offered by a fluid to flow.
Example: Passengers fall backward when a bus starts • It depends on temperature and nature of fluid.
suddenly. Unit: Pa·s
Newton’s Second Law of Motion Example: Engine oil flows slowly.
• Rate of change of momentum is directly proportional UNIT–IV : HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS
to applied force. Heat
• It gives the relation between force, mass and • Heat is a form of energy transferred due to
acceleration. temperature difference.
Equation: F = ma • It flows from a hot body to a cold body.
Example: More force is required to push a loaded cart. Unit: Joule
Temperature Laws of Reflection
• Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a • Angle of incidence equals angle of reflection.
body. • Incident ray, reflected ray and normal lie in same
• It determines the direction of heat flow. plane.
Scales: Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin Mirror Formula: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u
Specific Heat Capacity Refraction of Light
• Amount of heat required to raise temperature of unit • Refraction is bending of light when it passes from one
mass by 1°C or 1K. medium to another.
• It indicates how quickly a substance heats up. • Occurs due to change in speed of light.
Equation: Q = mcΔT Snell’s Law: n = sin i / sin r
Change of State Example: Bent pencil in water.
• Conversion of matter from one state to another. Lenses
• Occurs without change in temperature. • Convex lens converges light rays.
Latent Heat • Concave lens diverges light rays.
• Heat absorbed or released during change of state. Lens Formula: 1/f = 1/v + 1/u
Equation: Q = mL Magnification m = v/u
Example: Ice melting at 0°C. UNIT–VII : ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics Electric Charge
• If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third • Electric charge is the property responsible for
body, they are in equilibrium with each other. electrical interactions.
• It forms the basis of temperature measurement. • Exists as positive and negative.
First Law of Thermodynamics Unit: Coulomb
• Heat supplied equals increase in internal energy plus Electric Current
work done. • Electric current is the flow of electric charge.
Equation: ΔQ = ΔU + W Equation: I = Q/t Unit: Ampere
Example: Heating a gas in a cylinder. Ohm’s Law
Second Law of Thermodynamics • Current through a conductor is directly proportional to
• Heat cannot flow spontaneously from a colder body to potential difference.
a hotter body. Equation: V = IR Example: Electric bulb circuit.
• Entropy of an isolated system always increases. Electric Power
UNIT–V : WAVES AND SOUND • Rate of consumption of electrical energy.
Wave Equation: P = VI
• A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy without Commercial unit: kWh
transfer of matter. Magnetism
• It requires a medium except electromagnetic waves. • Magnetism is the property by which magnets attract
Types of Waves iron.
• Transverse waves: particles vibrate perpendicular to • Like poles repel and unlike poles attract.
direction of wave (light). Electromagnetic Induction
• Longitudinal waves: particles vibrate parallel to • Production of emf due to change in magnetic flux.
direction of wave (sound). • Explained by Faraday’s laws.
Wave Equation Example: Electric generator.
• v = fλ UNIT–VIII : MODERN PHYSICS
where v = velocity, f = frequency, λ = wavelength Atom
Sound • Atom is the smallest particle of an element.
• Sound is a mechanical longitudinal wave. • Consists of nucleus and electrons.
• It requires a material medium to propagate. Photoelectric Effect
Audible Range • Emission of electrons when light falls on metal
• Human hearing range is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. surface.
Doppler Effect • Supports particle nature of light.
• Apparent change in frequency due to relative motion Equation: E = hf
of source and observer. Example: Solar cells.
• Used in radar and medical diagnosis. Radioactivity
Example: Ambulance siren. • Spontaneous emission of radiations from unstable
UNIT–VI : OPTICS nuclei.
Reflection of Light • Types: Alpha, Beta, Gamma rays.
• Reflection is the bouncing back of light from a Nuclear Energy
surface. • Energy released from nucleus of atom.
• Occurs from polished surfaces like mirrors. • Obtained by fission and fusion.
UNIT–IX : ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES sender to receiver.
Electromagnetic Waves • It consists of transmitter, channel and receiver.
• Electromagnetic waves are waves formed due to Elements of Communication System
oscillating electric and magnetic fields. • Transmitter: Converts message into signal.
• They do not require a material medium and can travel • Channel: Medium through which signal travels.
through vacuum. • Receiver: Receives and decodes signal.
Properties of Electromagnetic Waves Types of Communication
• Travel with speed of light c = 3×10⁸ m/s. • Analog communication.
• They are transverse in nature. • Digital communication.
Electromagnetic Spectrum Modulation
• Arrangement of electromagnetic waves according to • Process of superimposing message signal on carrier
wavelength or frequency. wave.
Types: Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared rays, • Types: AM, FM, PM.
Visible light, Ultraviolet rays, X-rays, Gamma rays. UNIT–XIII : UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
Uses of Electromagnetic Waves Units
• Radio waves: communication. • A unit is a standard quantity used for measurement.
• Microwaves: radar, cooking. • SI system is internationally accepted.
• X-rays: medical diagnosis. Dimensions
UNIT–X : ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) • Dimensions represent the physical nature of a
Alternating Current quantity.
• Alternating current is the current which changes its • Written in terms of mass, length and time.
magnitude and direction periodically. Dimensional Formula
• It is commonly used in domestic and industrial power • Expression showing relation of physical quantity with
supply. base quantities.
AC Voltage and Current Example: Force = [MLT⁻²].
• AC voltage varies sinusoidally with time. Uses of Dimensional Analysis
Equation: V = V₀ sinωt • To check correctness of equations.
Frequency of AC • To derive relations between physical quantities.
• Number of cycles per second. UNIT–XIV : ERROR ANALYSIS
• Unit: Hertz (Hz). Errors in Measurement
Example: AC supply frequency in India is 50 Hz. • Error is the difference between measured value and
Advantages of AC over DC true value.
• Easy transmission over long distances. • Errors affect accuracy of results.
• Can be stepped up or down using transformers. Types of Errors
UNIT–XI : ELECTRONICS • Systematic errors: Due to instrument or method.
(SEMICONDUCTORS) • Random errors: Due to observer or environment.
Semiconductors Least Count
• Semiconductors are materials whose conductivity lies • Smallest value that can be measured by an instrument.
between conductors and insulators. Example: Least count of vernier calipers.
• Their conductivity increases with increase in UNIT–XV : FLUID MECHANICS
temperature. Fluid
Examples: Silicon, Germanium. • A fluid is a substance that can flow and take the shape
Types of Semiconductors of its container.
• Intrinsic semiconductor: Pure semiconductor. • Includes liquids and gases.
• Extrinsic semiconductor: Doped semiconductor. Density
p-type Semiconductor • Density is mass per unit volume of a substance.
• Formed by adding trivalent impurities. • Formula: ρ = m/V
• Holes are majority charge carriers. • Unit: kg/m³
n-type Semiconductor Pressure in Fluids
• Formed by adding pentavalent impurities. • Pressure is force per unit area. P = F/A
• Electrons are majority charge carriers. • Unit: Pascal (Pa)
p-n Junction Diode Example: Hydraulic lift.
• A p-n junction diode allows current in one direction Pascal’s Law
only. • Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
• Used as a rectifier. undiminished in all directions.
UNIT–XII : COMMUNICATION SYSTEM Example: Hydraulic press, car brakes.
Communication System Archimedes’ Principle
• A communication system transfers information from • Upthrust on a body immersed in a fluid equals the
weight of the fluid displaced. Nuclear Reactions
Example: Ship floating, submarine. • Fission: Splitting of heavy nucleus → energy
Viscosity released.
• Internal friction in fluid resisting motion. • Fusion: Combining light nuclei → energy released.
• Unit: Pa·s Example: Sun’s energy = nuclear fusion.
• Example: Honey flows slower than water. UNIT–XIX : ELECTROMAGNETISM
UNIT–XVI : OSCILLATIONS AND SIMPLE ADVANCED CONCEPTS
HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) Electromagnetic Induction
Oscillation • Production of induced emf when magnetic flux
• Repeated motion about a mean position. through a coil changes.
• Examples: Pendulum, mass-spring system. • Faraday’s Law: ε = –dΦ/dt
Simple Harmonic Motion • Lenz’s Law: Direction of induced current opposes
• Motion in which acceleration is proportional and change in flux.
opposite to displacement. Alternating Current (AC)
• Equation: a = –ω²x • Current periodically reverses direction.
Time Period • Equation: i = I₀ sin(ωt)
• Time for one complete oscillation. Transformer
• Pendulum: T = 2π√(l/g) • Device to step up or step down AC voltage.
• Mass-spring: T = 2π√(m/k) • Vp/Vs = Np/Ns
Frequency Electromagnetic Waves
• Number of oscillations per second. f = 1/T • Oscillating electric and magnetic fields perpendicular
Unit: Hertz (Hz) to each other.
Energy in SHM • Travel at speed of light c = 3×10⁸ m/s
• Total mechanical energy E = KE + PE = ½ k A² UNIT–XX : THERMAL PHYSICS AND KINETIC
(constant) THEORY
UNIT–XVII : GRAVITATION AND ORBITS Kinetic Theory of Gases
Newton’s Law of Gravitation • Gas consists of molecules in random motion.
• Every particle of matter attracts every other particle • Pressure due to collisions with walls.
with force proportional to product of masses and Equation of State of Ideal Gas
inversely proportional to square of distance. • PV = nRT
• Equation: F = G m₁m₂ / r² Mean Kinetic Energy
Acceleration due to Gravity • KE = 3/2 kT per molecule
• g = GM / R² (for planet of mass M and radius R) • Relation to temperature: proportional
• Example: g = 9.8 m/s² on Earth Thermal Expansion
Escape Velocity • Solids, liquids, gases expand on heating.
• Minimum speed needed to escape gravitational field • ΔL = α L ΔT (linear expansion)
of planet. UNIT–XXI : OPTICS ADVANCED
• v = √(2GM/R) Interference of Light
Orbital Velocity • Superposition of two coherent light waves.
• Velocity required to keep satellite in circular orbit. • Example: Thin film colors.
• v = √(GM/r) Diffraction of Light
UNIT–XVIII : MODERN PHYSICS RELATED • Bending of light around edges or through narrow slit.
TOPICS • Example: Pattern on CD surface.
Quantum Physics Polarization
• Deals with energy and matter at atomic and subatomic • Restriction of light waves to a single plane.
levels. • Example: Polarized sunglasses.
• Concepts: Photons, quantization of energy. UNIT–XXII : SOUND AND ULTRASONICS
Planck’s Quantum Theory Sound Properties
• Energy is emitted or absorbed in discrete packets • Mechanical longitudinal wave.
(quanta). • Velocity in air: v = 331 + 0.6T m/s (T in °C)
• Equation: E = hf Ultrasound
Example: Photoelectric effect. • Sound above 20 kHz frequency.
Radioactivity • Uses: Medical imaging, sonar.
• Spontaneous emission of radiation from unstable Resonance
nuclei. • When system oscillates at natural frequency due to
• Types: Alpha (α), Beta (β), Gamma (γ) external periodic force.
Half-life: Time for half of radioactive nuclei to decay. • Example: Tuning fork, musical instruments.