Module III
Introduction to Robot Kinematics and
Dynamics
• Introduction to Kinematics: Position and Orientation of Objects. Rotation. Euler Angles.
Rigid Motion Representation using Homogenous Transformation Matrix. Kinematic
Modelling: Translation and Rotation Representation, Coordinate Transformation,
• Forward and Inverse Kinematics. Forward Kinematics-Link Coordinates, Denavit
Hartenberg Representation, Application of DH Convention to Different Serial Kinematic
Arrangements. Inverse Kinematics – General Properties of Solutions, Kinematic
Decoupling,
• Velocity Kinematics – Derivation of the Jacobian, Application of Velocity Kinematics for
Serial Manipulators, Importance of Singularities. Introduction to Dynamic
Modelling:Forward and Inverse Dynamics- Equations of Motion using Euler-Lagrange
formulation, Newton Euler Formulation
Matrix Representation
*Matrices can be used to represent points,
vectors, frames, translations, rotations,
transformations, as well as objects and
other kinematic elements
❖Representation of a Point in Space
A point P in space (Figure ) can be
represented by its three coordinates relative to a
reference frame as
P=axj+byj+czk
where ax,by and cz are the three coordinates of the point represented in the reference
frame.
• Representation of a Vector in Space
• A vector can be represented by three coordinates of its tail and its head.
• If the vector starts at point A and ends at point B, then it represented
by
PAB=(Bx-Ax)i+(By-Ay)j+(Bz-Az)k
• Specifically, if the vector starts at the origin
Then,P=axi+byj+czk
where ax ,by and cz are the three components of
the vector in the reference frame.
Representation of a Vector in Space
• The three components of the vector can also be written in matrix form:
• This representation can be slightly modified to also include a scale factor w
such that if Px, Py, and Pz are divided by w, they will yield ax, by, and cz.
• Therefore the vector can be written as
• w may be any number
❖ The value of w
▪ the value of w changes, the size of the vector changes
▪ If w is bigger than 1, all vector components enlarge; if w is smaller than 1, all vector
components become smaller
▪ if w is smaller than 1, all vector components become smaller.
▪ When w is 1, the size of these components remains unchanged.
▪ if w = 0, then ax, by, and cz will be infinity.
✔In this case, Px, Py, and Pz (as well as ax, by, and cz) will represent a vector whose length
is infinite but nonetheless is in the direction represented by the vector.
✔this means that a direction vector can be represented by a scale factor of w = 0, where the
length is not important, but the direction is represented by the three components of the
vector.
Problem
1.A vector is described as .P=3i+5j+2k. Express the vector in matrix form:
(a) With a scale factor of 2. (b) If it were to describe a direction as a unit vector.
• Solution: The vector can be expressed in matrix form with a scale factor of 2 as well as 0 for direction
as:
2.A vector p is 5 units long and is in the direction of a unit vector q
described below. Express the vector in matrix form.
• Frame: A set of four vectors carrying position and orientation
information
Representation of a Frame at the Origin of a
Fixed Reference Frame
• A frame is generally represented by three mutually orthogonal axes (such as
x, y, and z).
What NOA Really Represents
In robotics, whenever we attach a coordinate frame to a robot’s end-effector,
that frame has:
An X-axis
A Y-axis
A Z-axis
NOA is simply a meaningful naming of those three axes:
Symbol Meaning Usually corresponds to
N Normal X-axis of tool frame
O Orientation Y-axis of tool frame
A Approach Z-axis of tool frame
So:
𝑅 = [𝑁 𝑂 𝐴]
This means the rotation matrix is formed by placing N, O, A as column
vectors.
Geometric Meaning (Very Important)
Imagine a robot holding a drill.
The direction the drill is pointing → Approach (A)
The sideways direction of the drill → Orientation (O)
The direction perpendicular to both → Normal (N)
That ensures the matrix represents pure rotation (no scaling, no distortion).
Why Not Just Call Them X, Y, Z?
In mathematics:
We say X, Y, Z axes.
In robotics:
We prefer N, O, A because they describe the function of the tool.
For example:
In welding → A is welding direction
In drilling → A is drilling direction
In camera mounting → A is viewing direction
So NOA is physically meaningful, not just mathematically correct.
How It Appears in Homogeneous Transformation
Full transformation matrix:
𝑛 𝑜 𝑎 𝑝
𝑛 𝑜 𝑎 𝑝
𝑇= Where:
𝑛 𝑜 𝑎 𝑝
0 0 0 1
First column → N vector Second column → O vector
Third column → A vector Fourth column → Position vector P
So: Position = where the tool is
NOA = how the tool is oriented
Why It Is Important in Robotics
In Forward Kinematics
When solving robot kinematics using methods like those introduced by
Jacques Denavit and Richard Hartenberg, the final matrix gives:
Position
Orientation (in NOA form)
In Inverse Kinematics
If you want the tool to:
Point downward
Align with a surface
NOA representation is the representation of a robot end-effector
orientation using three mutually perpendicular unit vectors (Normal,
Orientation, Approach) forming the rotation matrix.
Representation of a Frame Relative to a
Fixed Reference Frame
• To fully describe a frame relative to another frame, both the location of its origin
and the directions of its axes must be specified.
If a frame is not at the origin (or, in fact, even if it is at the origin) of the
reference frame, its location relative to the reference frame is described by a
vector between the origin of the frame and the origin of the reference frame
• Similarly, this vector is expressed by its components relative to the reference
frame.
Homogeneous matrix representation:
Representation of a Frame Relative to a Fixed
Reference Frame
• The frame can be expressed by three vectors describing its directional
unit vectors and a fourth vector describing its location as:
• The first three vectors are directional vectors with w = 0, representing the directions of the three unit
vectors of the frame Fn;o;a, while the fourth vector with w = 1 represents the location of the origin of
the frame relative to the reference frame.
• Unlike the unit vectors, the length of vector p is important. Consequently, we use a scale factor of 1.
• A frame may also be represented by a 3 4 matrix without the scale factors, but it is not common.
• Adding the fourth row of scale factors to the matrix makes it a 4 4 or homogeneous matrix.
• 2. The frame F shown in Figure is located at 3,5,7 units, with its n axis
parallel to x, its o-axis at 45 relative to the y-axis, and its a-axis at 45
relative to the z-axis.
The frame can be described by
n-axis parallel to x-axis" So:
𝑛 = (1,0,0)
o-axis at 45° relative to y-axis"
it lies in the y–z plane and makes 45° with y.
So components:
𝑜 = (0, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45°, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 45°)
1 1
𝑜 = (0, , )
√2 √2
A axis at 45° relative to z-axis"
So it also lies in y–z plane:
1 1
𝑎 = (0, −𝑠𝑖𝑛 45°, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 45°)𝑎 = (0, − , )
√2 √2
:
Representation of a Rigid Body
• A rigid body in space has six degrees of freedom, meaning that not only can
it move along x-, y-, and z-axes, it can also rotate about these three axes
• All that is needed to completely define an object in space is six pieces of
information describing the location of the origin of the object in the reference
frame and its orientation about the three axes.
• Twelve pieces of information are given: nine for orientation, and three for
position (this excludes the scale factors on the last row of the matrix because
they do not add to this information).
Obviously, there must be some constraints present in this representation to limit
the above to six.
• 6 constraint equations to reduce the above from twelve to six
Representation of a Rigid Body
• The three unit vectors n, o, a are mutually perpendicular, and
• Each unit vector’s length, represented by its directional cosines, must be equal to 1. •
These constraints translate into the following six constraint equations:
• As a result, the values representing a frame in a matrix must be such that the above equations remain
true. Otherwise, the frame will not be correct.
• Alternatively, the first three equations in Equation can be replaced by a cross product of the three
vectors as: n x o =a
Representation of a Rigid Body: Problem
Find the missing elements of the following frame representation:
Representation of a Rigid Body: Problem
• For the following frame, find the values of the missing elements and
complete the matrix representation of the frame
• Solving these six equations will yield nx =0:707; nz =0; oy =0; oz =1;
ax = 0:707, and ay = 0.707. Notice that both nx and ax must have the
same sign. The reason for multiple solutions is that with the given
parameters, it is possible to have two sets of mutually perpendicular
vectors in opposite directions. The final matrix will be:
• both matrices satisfy all the requirements set by the constraint equations.
It is important to realize that the values representing the three direction
vectors are not arbitrary but bound by these equations. Therefore, you
may not randomly use any desired values in the matrix.
Representation of Transformations
• A transformation is defined as making a movement in space.
• When a frame (a vector, an object, or a moving frame) moves in space
relative to a fixed reference frame we represent this motion in a form
similar to a frame representation
• A transformation may be in the of the following forms
1.A pure translation
2.A pure rotation about an axis
3.A combination of translations and/or rotations
Representation of a Pure Translation
• If a frame (that may also be representing an object) moves in space without any