Chapter 2: Psychology of Nerve cells and

Neurons
1.​Introduction to the Biological Basis of Behavior
The Biological Basis of Behavior (also known as Biological Psychology or Biopsychology) is a
scientific field that investigates the physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms
of behavior in humans and animals.

Its core premise is that all thoughts, emotions, and actions are rooted in the body's biological
functions. It seeks to understand the fundamental "hardware"—our physical structure—that
determines the "software"—our psychological experience.

Key Areas of Focus

This field explores how the following major biological systems and factors contribute to an
individual's unique behavioral patterns:

1.​ Genetics: The study of how inherited genes influence temperament, intelligence,
personality traits, and susceptibility to psychological disorders. It emphasizes the
complex interaction between genetic predispositions (nature) and environmental
experiences (nurture).
2.​ The Endocrine System: The system of glands that secretes hormones (chemical
messengers) into the bloodstream. These hormones regulate metabolism, mood, stress
response, and sexual development, thereby causing broad, long-lasting effects on
behavior.
3.​ The Brain and Neural Communication: The ultimate control center, where specific
structures and the release of neurotransmitters (chemical communicators) dictate
cognitive processes, memory, emotional reactions, and motor functions. (Focusing on
the function and outcome rather than the minute mechanisms of the nerve cells
themselves).

In essence, the biological basis of behavior provides the indispensable scientific foundation for
modern psychology, bridging the gap between molecular biology and observable human
actions.
 2. Neurons (External structure)
A neuron, or nerve cell, is the fundamental unit of the nervous system, designed to transmit
information.

Neurons, the specialized cells of the nervous system, are uniquely structured to transmit
electrical and chemical signals efficiently throughout the body. Their anatomy can be divided
into distinct external extensions and a specialized internal cell body.

External Structure of a Neuron

The primary external components allow a neuron to receive, process, and transmit information
across long distances.

●​ Dendrites: These are numerous, short, and highly branched projections extending from
the cell body, often described as a "dendritic tree."
○​ Function: They are the receptive regions, receiving incoming signals (input)
from the axons of other neurons at junctions called synapses, and conducting
these signals toward the soma.
●​ Cell Body (Soma): This is the metabolic center of the neuron, enclosing the nucleus.
○​ Function: It integrates all incoming signals from the dendrites and determines
whether a signal should be transmitted forward.
●​ Axon: A single, long, slender projection that extends away from the soma at a
specialized region called the Axon Hillock.
○​ Function: It is the transmitting cable, conducting the electrical impulse (Action
Potential) away from the cell body toward target cells (other neurons, muscles, or
glands).
●​ Myelin Sheath and Nodes: The axon is often covered by a fatty, insulating layer called
the Myelin Sheath (formed by glial cells). This sheath is interrupted at regular intervals
by gaps called the Nodes of Ranvier.
○​ Function: Myelin insulates the axon and dramatically speeds up the electrical
signal transmission by forcing the impulse to jump from one Node of Ranvier to
the next (saltatory conduction).
●​ Axon Terminals (Terminal Buttons): The highly branched ends of the axon.
○​ Function: They house small sacs (synaptic vesicles) containing
neurotransmitters, which are released into the synapse to communicate with
the next cell.
 3. Types of Neurons

Neurons are incredibly diverse and are classified in two major ways: by their function (what job
they do in the nervous system) and by their structure (the shape and number of processes
extending from the cell body).

Here are the details on the primary types of neurons:

Classification by Function
This is the most common way to categorize neurons, based on the direction in which they
transmit impulses relative to the Central Nervous System (CNS - brain and spinal cord).

1. Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)

●​ Role: Carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors in the skin, internal organs,
muscles, and special sense organs (like the eyes and ears) to the Central Nervous
System (CNS).
●​ Function Detail: They are activated by physical or chemical stimuli (e.g., touch, heat,
light, taste) and convert this information into electrical signals that the brain can process
as sensation.
●​ Structural Note: Most sensory neurons are structurally pseudounipolar (see below).

2. Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)

●​ Role: Carry impulses away from the CNS to effector organs like muscles and glands.
●​ Function Detail: They initiate a response, such as muscle contraction (movement) or
glandular secretion (releasing hormones or saliva). They directly control both voluntary
(skeletal muscle) and involuntary (smooth muscle, heart muscle) activities.
●​ Structural Note: Most motor neurons are structurally multipolar (see below).

3. Interneurons (Association Neurons)

●​ Role: Form the communication link between other neurons (sensory and motor) within
the CNS.
●​ Function Detail: They are the processing centers—they integrate, analyze, and
interpret the incoming sensory information, and then determine the appropriate motor
response. They are the most abundant type of neuron and are essential for complex
functions like learning, memory, and reflexes.
●​ Location: Confined entirely within the brain and spinal cord.
●​ Structural Note: All interneurons are structurally multipolar.
Classification by Structure (Morphology)
This method classifies neurons based on the number of processes (axon and dendrites) that
extend directly from the cell body (soma).

1. Multipolar Neurons
●​ Structure: Characterized by one axon and two or more dendrites extending from the
cell body. They have the most common and complex structure, resembling a tree with
many branches.
●​ Location/Examples: They make up the vast majority of neurons in the CNS (e.g.,
interneurons, pyramidal cells) and all motor neurons.

2. Bipolar Neurons
●​ Structure: Have one axon and one dendrite extending from opposite sides of the cell
body. They are rare in the body.
●​ Location/Examples: Found in specialized sensory organs, such as the retina of the eye
(vision) and the olfactory epithelium (smell).

3. Pseudounipolar Neurons (or Unipolar)

●​ Structure: Appears to have only one process extending from the cell body, but this
single process actually splits almost immediately into two parts: one that runs to the CNS
(functioning as an axon) and one that extends to the periphery (functioning as a
dendrite/receptor).
●​ Location/Examples: The cell bodies are typically found in the ganglia of the Peripheral
Nervous System (PNS), such as the dorsal root ganglia. Most sensory neurons are of
this type.
 4. Nerve Impulse

The transmission of information along the nervous system involves two distinct processes: an
electrical signal within a neuron (the nerve impulse) and a chemical signal between neurons
(synaptic communication).

The Nerve Impulse (Communication Within a Neuron)

The nerve impulse, or Action Potential, is a rapid, transient change in the electrical charge
across the neuron's cell membrane, typically traveling down the axon.

1. Resting State
●​ The neuron maintains a resting membrane potential of about -70 mV (inside negative
relative to the outside).
●​ This is maintained by the Sodium-Potassium Pump, which actively transports 3 Na+
ions out for every 2 K+ ions pumped in. The membrane is polarized.

2. Depolarization (The Impulse Firing)

●​ When a neuron receives enough stimulation (reaching the threshold potential of
around -55 mV), voltage-gated Sodium (Na+) channels open rapidly.
●​ Na+ ions flood into the cell due to concentration and electrical gradients, causing the
internal charge to become positive (e.g., up to +30 mV). This reversal is the key part of
the action potential.

3. Repolarization
●​ Immediately after the peak, the voltage-gated Na+ channels close, and slower-acting
voltage-gated Potassium (K+) channels open.
●​ K+ ions flow rapidly out of the cell, restoring the negative charge inside the cell.

4. Hyperpolarization (Refractory Period)

●​ The K+ channels remain open briefly after the cell returns to its resting potential, causing
the membrane to become slightly more negative than the resting potential (e.g., -80
mV).
●​ During this refractory period, the neuron cannot fire another impulse, ensuring the
signal travels in only one direction. The sodium-potassium pump restores the ion
concentrations back to the resting state.
The action potential is an "all-or-none" event: it either fires completely or not at all, and its
strength remains constant as it propagates down the axon.

Synaptic Communication (Communication Between

Neurons)
Neurons communicate with their target cells (other neurons, muscle, or gland cells) at a junction
called the synapse.

1. Arrival of Impulse
●​ The action potential travels down the axon to the Axon Terminal (the presynaptic
terminal).

2. Neurotransmitter Release
●​ The arrival of the electrical impulse opens voltage-gated Calcium (Ca2+) channels in
the presynaptic terminal membrane.
●​ The influx of Ca2+ ions triggers the fusion of synaptic vesicles (sacs containing
chemical messengers called neurotransmitters) with the terminal membrane.
●​ Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, the small gap between the two
neurons.

3. Receptor Binding
●​ The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to specific receptor
proteins on the membrane of the receiving cell (the postsynaptic neuron).
●​ This binding opens ion channels on the postsynaptic membrane, causing a change in its
membrane potential.

4. Postsynaptic Effect
●​ The postsynaptic potential can be:
○​ Excitatory: Causes depolarization (making the receiving neuron more likely to
fire an action potential).
○​ Inhibitory: Causes hyperpolarization (making the receiving neuron less likely to
fire an action potential).
●​ This chemical signal is then converted back into an electrical signal (a postsynaptic
potential) in the receiving neuron, completing the transfer of information.