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Chapter 6

The document discusses the concept of consciousness, including its definitions, variations, and implications in both humans and animals. It explores the relationship between free will and brain activity, the evolution of consciousness, and the significance of self-awareness in social contexts. Additionally, it raises questions about artificial consciousness and the potential for machines to achieve self-awareness through tests like the Turing test.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

5 views37 pages

Chapter 6

Uploaded by

Davy Wong

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

6

The Aware Mind

ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Compare and contrast 2. Describe the effects 3. Differentiate several 5. Categorize the
the different meanings of of different stages sleep-wake disorders in neurochemical
consciousness. of waking and sleep terms of their symptoms mechanisms and effects
on consciousness, and the type of sleep on consciousness
electroencephalogram disturbed. of major types of
(EEG) patterns, psychoactive drugs.
autonomic nervous 4. Explain disorders
system function, and of consciousness in 6. Describe the use of
muscle activity. terms of damage or hypnosis, meditation,
dysfunction of the brain. and other nondrug
methods for altering
consciousness.

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO HAVE “FREE WILL”? THIS MIGHT sound more like a philosophy question
than a psychology question, but advances in biological and cognitive psychology have allowed
psychologists to tackle it.

Usually, we think of free will as the ability to consciously control our actions and decisions. In the
children’s game of “rock, paper, scissors,” we feel like we are making a conscious decision to choose
one of the three options, but how would such a decision be made? What types of processes in the brain
correspond to choosing scissors over the other two possibilities?

Controversial research into voluntary movements, such as forming your hand into scissors, has shown
that the brain makes a commitment to a choice before we become aware of the decision (Libet
et al., 1993; Soon et al., 2008). (See ● Figure 6.1.) Other research shows that the brain can be
manipulated to make an unusual choice without disrupting the individual’s sense of free will.
Right-handed people normally use their right hand 60% of the time or more when forced to
choose to use one hand over the other, but when researchers exposed right-handed subjects’
right hemispheres to transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), illustrated in the large image
on the previous page, they chose to use their left hand 80% of the time (Ammon & Gandevia,
1990). Despite making the uncharacteristic choice to use “the wrong hand,” the participants in
LeventeGyori/[Link]

this experiment reported feeling in control of their hand movements. If the brain has already
committed to a movement, what purpose does a conscious sense of having decided to move serve?

Insight into this question emerged from the study of split-brain patients described in Chapter 4.
These patients have undergone surgery that severs the connections between their right and their

193

FIGURE 6.1 Awareness of intention to act

The Intention to Move Precedes Conscious Awareness. Benjamin

Libet demonstrated that a “readiness potential,” or a change in the Activity in motor
participant’s EEG activity, could be seen about 350 msec (1 msec is cortex begins
one one-thousandth of a second, so about 1 3 second) prior to the
participant’s conscious intent to flex a finger. Libet’s results initiated
a lively discussion among psychologists and philosophers about the
nature of human free will. –550 –200 0
Source: [Link]
Time in milliseconds

left hemispheres, making it possible to expose one hemisphere at a time

to a stimulus. For example, you can show the relatively nonverbal right
hemisphere the word stand, and the patient usually stands up. However,
because of the limitations of the right hemisphere in processing
language, the patient is consciously unaware of having read the word.
When asked why they stood up, patients responded by saying they
felt the need to stretch. In other words, the mind is building a theory
about the behavior that was just performed (Gazzaniga, 2011). This
type of observation leads to a view of consciousness as an interpreter,
Maximilian Weinzierl/Alamy Stock Photo

making sense out of our actions and the world within and around
us. This view helps us understand the observed delay between the
brain’s commitment to an action and our conscious awareness of that
decision—the interpreter needs time to analyze the situation.

In this chapter, we will explore many situations that affect the

performance of the interpreter, from the variations found in stages of
sleep and waking to the alterations produced by psychoactive drugs
Social context plays a role in sleep,
even for the fruit fly. Fruit flies living and damage to the brain. This journey will require us to zoom in to observe underlying processes in the
with other fruit flies rather than alone brain and then zoom out again to understand the influences of the social context on the phenomenon of
need more sleep, suggesting that one conscious awareness.
of the functions of sleep is to process
learning about social experiences. The
larger the group of flies, the longer
each fly needed to sleep.
From I. Ganguly-Fitzgerald, J. Donlea, &
What Does It Mean to Be
P. J. Shaw (2006). “Waking Experience
Affects Sleep Need in Drosophila,”
Science, 313(5794), 1775–1781.
Conscious?
doi:10.1126/science.1130408 Our English word conscious is derived from the Latin conscientia, which means “to know.”
Consciousness refers to knowing or being aware of ongoing experiences occurring both in-
ternally and in the world around us. We understand that to be unconscious, perhaps because
of a blow to the head, means that we are unaware of what is happening within and around
us. However, the term consciousness has multiple meanings. Consciousness can refer to a state
of awareness (alert versus drowsy, for example) or the current content of awareness (while
consciousness A state of awareness. reading this page, you hear your neighbor’s music). A special type of consciousness, self-
self-awareness The special under- awareness, occurs when we focus on ourselves as individuals.
standing of the self as distinct from other Consciousness has been a favorite topic among psychologists for many years. William
stimuli.
James coined the term “stream of consciousness” to capture the moving, seemingly

194 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

The Evolution of Consciousness

Most of us would agree that bacteria do not possess consciousness, but people do. This im-
plies that consciousness emerged at some point in the course of evolution. The exact location
of that point remains highly debatable. James (1890, p. 141) maintained that “consciousness
grows the more complex and intense the higher we rise in the animal kingdom. That of a man
must exceed that of an oyster.” If consciousness evolved as suggested by James, what advan-
tages might account for this development?
The question of the emergence of consciousness in animals is complicated by the mul-
tiple meanings of consciousness described previously. Most animals show variations in states
of awareness. Even the humble fruit fly takes periods of rest, which are believed to be the fruit
fly equivalent of sleep (Shaw et al., 2000). Consciousness defined as an awareness of ongoing
sensations is probably less common in the animal kingdom. Many animals would survive
quite well by simply responding automatically to the world around them
(“food” or “predator”) without necessarily thinking “I smell food” or “I see a
predator.” The self-awareness aspect of consciousness—as exemplified in “I”
statements—might be the rarest of all among living things, as we will see later.

Consciousness as Variations in Alertness Varying states of

awareness might allow animals to repair their bodies and conserve energy.
Food requirements would be higher if we stayed awake for 24 hours, as
you may have noticed while studying for final exams. Another possible
benefit of varying states of awareness is maximizing safety. Most animals
are specialized for activity in either the light or the dark. Sleeping during ARCO/W Dolder/AGE Fotostock

the cycle for which an animal is poorly equipped for activity might
contribute to its survival. However, being inactive is not a safe thing to do
unless you have a safe place to hide (Allison & Cicchetti, 1976). Horses
and rabbits are both frequently preyed upon, but horses sleep in the open,
while rabbits sleep in burrows. Consequently, wild horses sleep as little as
1 or 2 hours per day, while wild rabbits sleep at least 8 hours.

Consciousness as an Awareness of Ongoing Sensations One possible advantage Sleeping habits of different species
of being consciously aware of ongoing sensations is the ability to choose responses rather than reflect how likely they are to be
to respond instinctively (Gazzaniga, 2011). If suddenly faced with a predator, any animal could preyed upon by other animals and
respond automatically using reflex and instinct, which we discuss in Chapter 8. Horses are whether they have shelter. The lion
notorious for running whenever the slightest stimulus bothers them. It is unlikely that the horse in has few predators and is likely to fall
these cases is thinking, “I hear a mountain lion—I should run.” Conscious awareness of sensations asleep wherever it is convenient.
provides more options. If a conscious animal hears a sound in the distance that might indicate
the presence of a predator, it could choose to continue on, flee, or pause while obtaining further
information. This flexibility would be likely to increase the animal’s chances of survival.

Consciousness as Self-Awareness The self-awareness aspect of consciousness

could heighten an animal’s drive to survive. Recognition and understanding of being alive is
correlated with heightened meaningfulness of self-preservation.
Developmental psychologists have provided a technique for demonstrating self-aware-
ness that can be used with many species. Recognizing one’s self in the mirror is believed to be
a major developmental milestone in achieving self-awareness. In the so-called rouge test, a dot
of rouge or other odorless dye is placed on a child’s forehead, and the child is allowed to look
in a mirror (Lewis & Brooks-Gunn, 1979). Before the age of about 18 months, children do not
seem to understand the image in the mirror is their own. At about that age, they rub at the spot

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE CONSCIOUS? 195

Rensselaer Artificial Intelligence and Reasoning Lab

Diana Reiss, Ph.D.
Babies 18 months and older are able to recognize themselves in a mirror, which psychologists believe indicates a sense of self-awareness. Happy
the elephant, a resident of the Bronx Zoo, repeatedly used her trunk to touch a mark that researchers placed above her eye, suggesting that she
too can recognize her image in the mirror. Researchers have suggested that even robots might be able to pass the mirror test.

of rouge or turn their bodies to get a better

Organisms like the army ant stretch look, thus demonstrating self-awareness.
our definitions of what it means Chimpanzees “pass” the rouge test by
to be conscious. Individual army demonstrating behavior similar to that of

Dr Morley Read/[Link]
ants (Eciton) are not impressive, 18-month-old children (Gallup, 1970). In
but colonies of army ants show addition to chimpanzees, orangutans, goril-
signs of collective intelligence and las raised by humans, bottle-nosed dolphins,
sophisticated problem solving, such as Asian elephants, magpies, and parrots have
using their bodies to build nests of up demonstrated self-awareness in this type of
to 700,000 individuals (Franks, 1989). experiment (Patterson, 1984; Gallup & Suarez,
1986; Povinelli, 1993; Patterson & Cohn, 1994;
Plotnik et al., 2006; Prior et al., 2008).
Other researchers restrict the possibility of self-aware consciousness to species that ex-
hibit complex social behavior. Of what use would self-awareness be if one did not frequently
interact with others of the same kind? Social animals must be able to recognize other indi-
viduals and respond to them accordingly. Dolphins appear to have special whistles that they
use for particular individuals, like names (Janik et al., 2006). Some social animals, including
chimpanzees and elephants, show an awareness of death and appear to grieve at the loss of
family members. Elephants in particular have been known to remain in the area of a relative’s
bones for lengthy periods (McComb et al., 2006).

PSYCHOLOGY AS A HUB SCIENCE

Can Machines Become Conscious?
EXTENDING THE QUESTION OF WHAT CREATURES
ARE CONSCIOUS A STEP FURTHER, we can ask whether
it is possible to construct an artificial consciousness. From the
Terminator to Her’s Samantha, Hollywood loves to tell the story
of the machine that develops consciousness. Stephen Hawking,
Bill Gates, and Elon Musk have warned us that self-aware ro-
bots are likely to jeopardize the continuity of the human race.
What does it mean for a machine to be conscious?
John Searle (1980) distinguishes between “strong” and “weak”

196 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Daily Mail
human. The ability to meet Turing’s criteria may be within reach.
One type of consciousness discussed in this chapter is self-awareness.
Selmer Bringsjord and his colleagues (2015) claim that their robots have
demonstrated evidence of self-awareness in the mirror test described
One Nao robot appears to have the
in this chapter. In another demonstration, the researchers told three Nao robots that two
answer to the dilemma posed to the
were given “dumbing” pills to prevent them from speaking, while one was given a placebo. In
group, which researchers claim is
actuality, mute buttons were pressed on two of the robots. When asked who had been given
evidence for self-awareness.
the active pills, all three tried to answer, but of course only one was able to say, “I don’t know.”
The robot paused, then stood up and said, “Sorry, I know now. I was able to prove that I was
not given a dumbing pill.”
Daniel Dennett (1991) argues that it might be more interesting to set aside the question
of consciousness and simply build the most human robot possible. Robots are becoming more
natural both in looks and behavior, and robotics experts hope to make them indistinguish-
able from humans. Hanson Robotics’ Sophia has cameras in her eyes that allow her to make
eye contact and recognize people. She uses Google Chrome voice recognition to process
speech, chat with people, and learn. Hiroshi Ishiguro has plans to make his robots suitable
for jobs such as a hotel receptionist, a museum tour guide, and a language tutor. Already, 80%
of Ishiguro’s participants greeted his robots by saying “hello,” as they mistakenly believed the
robots to be human.
Where will this technology lead us? That remains unknown, but the effort to construct
artificial consciousness might yield new insights into our own human consciousness. ■

Searching for Consciousness in the Brain

Is it possible to find consciousness in the brain? Consciousness, the mind, and the brain are
like a set of nested Russian dolls. The brain, the outside doll, houses the mind but has other
functions as well, such as maintaining breathing and body temperature. The mind, the middle
doll, houses consciousness, the innermost doll, but also manages unconscious functions such
as long-term memory, discussed in Chapter 9.
In this chapter, we will examine a number of natural, artificial, and pathological circumstances
that correlate with variations in consciousness. As a result of these investigations, we can begin to
view consciousness as requiring complex interactions between areas of the cerebral cortex and the
thalamus, discussed in detail in Chapter 4. In particular, lesions of the thalamus result in the type
of profound unconsciousness typically associated with brain death (Bogen, 1995). We discuss the
concept of brain death more fully in a later section of this chapter.
Certain structures in the brain, such as the thalamus, might be necessary, but not suffi-
cient, for consciousness. For example, observing that your television screen no longer produces
a picture after you remove a component does not necessarily imply that the sole source of the
picture is that particular component; it’s likely that other components need to be attached
simultaneously and contribute to the creation of the visual image. Likewise, additional brain
structures, such as the reticular formation of the brainstem, play an active role in raising or
lowering the thresholds of conscious awareness (see ● Figure 6.2). Because of these variations,
you are far more likely to hear and respond to a sound while awake than while deeply asleep.
Structures such as the thalamus and reticular formation have been described as “enabling”
consciousness, but they do not produce its content (Crick & Koch, 2003).

WHAT DOES IT MEAN TO BE CONSCIOUS? 197

a conscious task requiring attention. Activity in the

DMN is correlated with thinking about the self, oth-
ers, and a person’s past and future.
Functional connectivity in the DMN in healthy
individuals is stronger in adulthood than in childhood
and older adulthood (Mak et al., 2017). Functional con-
FIGURE 6.2 nectivity of the DMN, in turn, is associated with cogni-
tive function. Abnormal connectivity of the DMN has
Brain Structures Associated With Consciousness. Among the brain structures been observed in individuals with autism spectrum dis-
that are believed to participate in consciousness are the cerebral cortex, thalamus, order (Cherkassky et al., 2006) and Alzheimer’s disease
and reticular formation, as well as the complex pathways connecting these parts (Greicius et al., 2004). It is possible that other psycho-
of the brain. These structures make consciousness possible, which we know logical disorders might have correlating disturbances in
because damage to these circuits results in unconsciousness, but they do not DMN function.
determine the content of consciousness.

Inside right hemisphere Outside left hemisphere

Medial
prefrontal
cortex
Medial Lateral
prefrontal parietal
cortex cortex

Medial
parietal
cortex Lateral
temporal
Default mode network cortex

FIGURE 6.3
The Default Mode Network (DMN) of the Brain. Activity of the DMN corresponds to mind wandering, thinking about
the self, and preparing for conscious thought.
Source: Adapted from M. E. Raichle (2010). “The Brain’s Dark Energy,” Scientific American, 314(5803), 44–49. doi: 10.1126/science. 1134405

198 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Content of awareness The ongoing catalog of internal and ● Hearing a neighbor’s music.
Cerebral cortex
external stimuli that are the focus of ● Thinking that you’re hungry and it’s time
Thalamus
current attention. to eat.
● Considering the implications of a news
Reticular formation
report.

Self-awareness The special understanding of the self ● Knowing that you are looking at yourself
as distinct from other stimuli. in the mirror.
● Knowing that you are sleeping and
dreaming.

Credits: Top row—ARCO/W Dolder/AGE Fotostock; Second row—Argosy Publishing Inc.; Bottom row—Ghislain & Marie David de Lossy/The Image Bank/Getty Images / Diana Reiss, Ph.D.

What Happens to
Consciousness During
Waking and Sleep?
Our first meaning of consciousness involves variations in an animal’s state of awareness.
Awareness changes dramatically across cycles of sleep and waking. These cycles follow circa-
dian rhythms, or daily rhythms. The term circadian comes from the Latin words for “about
a day.”
Circadian rhythms are only one example of a number of important biorhythms. Animals
have birth seasons and migration patterns. Human females experience menstrual cycles.
Within a single day, we also see regular fluctuations in arousal, with peaks occurring every 90
to 120 minutes.

sleep A normal state of consciousness

Circadian Rhythms characterized by reduced awareness of
external stimuli.
Circadian rhythms respond to a combination of internal and external factors. Internal bio- waking A normal state of consciousness
logical clocks, controlled by the hypothalamus, provide an approximate schedule for various characterized by alertness and awareness
of external stimuli.
physical processes, including sleep and waking, body temperature, and hunger. These internal
biological clocks interact with external stimuli, known as zeitgebers (zeit means “time” and circadian rhythm A daily biological
rhythm.
geber means “to give” in German; hence, these stimuli are “time givers”).
Light is one of the most important zeitgebers for humans. Exposure to the rising sun each biological clock An internal mechanism
that provides an approximate schedule for
day helps to reset the internal biological clocks to the correct time. In the absence of light, our various physical processes.
internal clocks run a few minutes longer than a 24-hour cycle. Over time, the distortion adds

WHAT HAPPENS TO CONSCIOUSNESS DURING WAKING AND SLEEP? 199

Modern Living and Circadian Rhythms Our human ancestors remained awake
during daylight and slept throughout the dark of night, although some historians argue they
did so in two shifts rather than continuously (Ekirch, 2001). They lacked the technology
needed to travel rapidly across time zones.
Modern sleep and waking patterns are substantially different from those of our ancestors,
often resulting in challenges to health. Technology, particularly the invention of artificial light,
has shaped our contemporary sleep–wake patterns by making it easy to be awake at night (see
● Figure 6.4). Artificial lighting, including that produced by tablets and phones, affects sleep
by breaking down melatonin, a hormone released in the evening that regulates sleep cycles.
Changes in melatonin release have been implicated in a long list of human diseases, including
cancer, diabetes, and heart disease, which might be more common among people who work
night shifts (Touitou et al., 2017). “Social jet lag,” or the disrupted sleep resulting from modern
inconsistencies in weekday and weekend sleep times, has been associated with overweight,
obesity, and metabolic syndrome (Espitia-Bautista et al., 2017).
Some occupations, such as hospital and public safety jobs, involve work around the clock,
which in turn is correlated with physical and psychological problems (Kecklund & Axelsson,
2016). Between 40% and 80% of workers on graveyard shifts (11:00 p.m. to 7:30 a.m.) experience
shift maladaptation syndrome, characterized by health, personality, mood, and interpersonal
problems (Wagner, 1996). Accident rates in the industrial swing shift (3:00 p.m. to 11:30 p.m.)
are higher than in the traditional day shift, and the graveyard shift is the most dangerous work
period (Caruso, 2014). Not only do shift workers experience more accidents, but they also
make more errors. Hospital workers are more likely to make significant errors during evening
shifts than during day shifts (Chang et al., 2011).
Our modern ability to cross time zones leads to the experience of jet lag, which produces
fatigue, irritability, and sleepiness. The travel is not to blame because north–south travel of
equal distance does not produce the symptoms of jet lag (Herxheimer & Waterhouse, 2003).
Chronic jet lag has even more serious consequences. Flight attendants with 4 or more years of
experience in which time zones were crossed at least once a week had reduced reaction times
and made 9% more mistakes on memory tasks than local crews (Cho et al., 2000).

Time before
Time in bed
Wake leaving for work Commute Workday Commute Time before bed
6 hours
time 1 hour 35 minutes 23 minutes 9 hours 28 minutes 23 minutes 6 hours 6 minutes 55 minutes

5:00 a.m. 5:35 a.m. 7:45 a.m. 8:09 a.m. 5:04 p.m. 5:27 p.m. 10:53 p.m. 5:35 a.m.
FIGURE 6.4
A Day in the Life of a Typical American Worker. Americans are believed to be somewhat sleep deprived because the average adult spends
only 6 hours and 55 minutes in bed, which includes time needed to initiate sleep. Although people try to make up for lost sleep on weekends by
sleeping longer, this solution is not very effective.
Source: Data from National Sleep Foundation (2008). “2008 Sleep in America Poll,” retrieved from [Link] /
files/2008%20POLL%[Link]
Illustration: photos, left to right: Hurst Photo/[Link]; Martin Novak/[Link]; StockLite/[Link]; Martin Novak/[Link]; [Link]/hocus-focus; [Link]/funkypoodle

200 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

A Los Angeles resident But it feels like . . . A New Yorker traveling But it feels like . . .
traveling to New York may . . . to Los Angeles may . . .

go to and get going to and getting go to and get going to and getting
bed at up at bed at up at bed at up at bed at up at
10:00 p.m. . . . 6:00 a.m. 7:00 p.m. . . . 3:00 a.m. 10:00 p.m. . . . 6:00 a.m. 1:00 a.m. . . . 9:00 a.m.
Eastward travel Westward travel

Some challenges to our circadian rhythms are easier to manage than others. It is easier to FIGURE 6.5
adjust when we set the clock to a later point than to an earlier point. The experiences of two
Jet Lag Is Worse When Traveling
people, one traveling from Los Angeles to New York City (setting the clock forward) and the
East. Traveling eastward is more
other traveling from New York City to Los Angeles (setting the clock back), are compared in
disruptive to circadian rhythms than
● Figure 6.5. Let’s assume that both travelers usually go to bed at 10:00 p.m. and get up at 6:00
traveling westward. Los Angeles
a.m. To stay on the same sleep schedule, the LA–NYC traveler must now go to sleep at 7:00
residents visiting New York feel like
p.m. and wake up at 3:00 a.m., which is difficult, whereas the NYC–LA traveler must stay up
they are going to bed 3 hours earlier
until 1:00 a.m. but can sleep until 9:00 a.m., which is easier.
than usual (7:00 p.m. Los Angeles
Daylight saving time offers another opportunity to observe our responses to abrupt
time) and waking up in the middle of
changes in our daily schedules (see ● Figure 6.6). This energy-saving relic from World War I
the night (3:00 a.m. Los Angeles time).
requires the setting of clocks forward 1 hour in the spring and back 1 hour in the fall. When
New Yorkers traveling to Los Angeles
Canadian traffic accident data were correlated with the two annual daylight saving shifts, the
have to stay up a little later (1:00 a.m.
shift back in the fall resulted in a 7% decrease in traffic accidents on the following Monday
New York time) but then can sleep
compared to other fall Mondays. In the spring setting of the clock forward, a comparable 7%
later to compensate (9:00 a.m. New
increase in traffic accidents occurred (Coren, 1996).
York time). Most people find the latter
When less light is available for setting the body’s internal clocks, approximately 4 to 6%
scenario easier.
of the population experience major depressive disorder with seasonal pattern, formerly
known as seasonal affective disorder (Jepson et al., 1998; APA, 2013). During the winter
months at higher latitudes, the reduction in daylight hours interferes with circadian rhythms.
This disruption may lead to symptoms of depression, discussed in more detail in Chapter 14,
that lift once the days become longer again. A relatively small group of individuals experience
symptoms in the spring and summer instead. Rates of seasonal depression vary from 1.4%
in Florida to 9.7% in New Hampshire (Jepson et al., 1998). Seasonal depression is typically
treated by exposure to bright light, with or without melatonin supplements or antidepressant
medications (Wirz-Justice, 2018). The lights used in this therapy are stronger than what is nor-
mally experienced indoors but not as strong as the light at the beach on an August afternoon.
major depressive disorder with sea-
Individual Variations in Circadian Rhythms You might believe that the day sonal pattern A mood disorder in which
should start around 2:00 p.m., whereas your roommate pops out of bed smiling at an alarming depression occurs regularly at the same
6:30 in the morning. What accounts for these individual differences in sleep patterns? time each year, usually during the winter
months; formerly known as seasonal affec-
Some individual differences become evident in infancy and remain consistent over the tive disorder (SAD).
life span. “Morning” people have been called larks, and “night” people have been called owls

WHAT HAPPENS TO CONSCIOUSNESS DURING WAKING AND SLEEP? 201

Incident ratio
1.10

1.05
Spring
1.00
0.95 Autumn

0.90
0
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

FIGURE 6.6
Daylight Saving Time Affects the Number of Heart Attacks. Fifteen years of data show that rates of heart attack increase significantly
in the days following the spring shift in daylight saving time and decrease following the fall shift. The incidence ratio is computed by comparing
the number of heart attacks on the specified day following the shift to the mean number of heart attacks for the same day 2 weeks before
and 2 weeks after the shift. The likely reason for the increase is sleep deprivation; it increases sympathetic nervous system activation and
inflammation, which can be dangerous to people with existing health problems.
Source: I. Janszky & R. Ljung (2008). “Shifts to and from Daylight Saving Time and Incidence of Myocardial Infarction,” New England Journal of Medicine, 359(18),
1966–1968. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc0807104.

(Åkerstedt & Fröberg, 1976). Many people fall somewhere between these two extremes and
are at their best in the middle of the day. Research on the genetic basis of circadian rhythms
suggests that the different patterns result from different versions of the genes responsible for
the activity of our internal clocks (Katzenberg et al., 1998).
Other differences appear to be more age related. Nearly everyone acts like an owl
during adolescence and young adulthood (Carskadon et al., 1998). In their mid to late
20s, many temporary owls revert to their previous lark
or medium state. The exact cause for such a shift during
and after adolescence and young adulthood is unclear, but
researchers suspect that the shift correlates with a burst
of brain development that is initiated at puberty. Some
researchers view the return to a previous sleep pattern in
young adulthood as a reliable indicator that the brain is
fully mature (Roenneberg et al., 2004).

Waking
Varying states of awareness can be described using electro-
encephalogram (EEG) recordings, which provide a general
measure of overall brain activity. During waking, we alternate
among three patterns of activity indicated by the recording
of beta waves, alpha waves, and gamma waves in the EEG
CrackerClips Stock Media/[Link]; Courtesy Earth

(see ● Figure 6.7). During beta activity, a person is actively

Modern artificial light breaks down the hormone melatonin,

Observatory/NASA

which is released only at night. Disruptions caused by the effects

of light on melatonin might be responsible for higher rates of
disease among employees who work at night.

202 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Beta band
FIGURE 6.7
The EEG During Waking. EEG recordings during waking usually
Gamma band alternate between alpha waves and beta waves. Alpha waves are
associated with a relaxed, possibly drowsy state, whereas beta waves
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 are associated with alertness. Gamma waves are seen in response to
Time (sec) sensory input.

thinking and alert. Beta activity is characterized by rapid (15 to 30 cycles per sec-
ond), irregular, low-amplitude waves that indicate the cerebral cortex is processing
large amounts of diverse data. A person showing alpha activity is awake but relaxed.
Alpha waves are slightly slower, larger, and more regular than beta waves, with a
frequency of 9 to 12 cycles per second. Improvements in EEG technology provided
the means to record waking waveforms that are faster than 30 cycles per second,
known as gamma waves (Miller, 2007). Gamma waves accompany the processing of
sensory input, particularly visual stimuli.

JohnMeyers/[Link]
Daydreaming, or mind wandering, “refers to spontaneous, subjective experi-
ences in a no-task, no-stimulus, no-response situation” (Vaitl et al., 2005, p. 100).
Daydreaming is correlated with activity in the DMN, as described earlier in the
chapter. EEG studies show that activity in the DMN is most closely correlated with
alpha waves (Knyazev et al., 2011). The function of daydreaming is unclear. We
might daydream simply because we evolved the ability to divide our attention, as de-
scribed in Chapter 5 (Mason et al., 2007). However, during activation of the DMN,
we often think about our past experiences and plan our future (Kahn, 2013). This Regardless of whether they were larks
contradicts the commonly held view that daydreaming is a “waste of time.” or owls as children, most teens act like
owls by naturally staying up late and
sleeping in. Legislators in the United
Sleep States have recently begun to take
notice, and have mandated later start
We spend one-third of our lives sleeping. Despite all that experience, few of us know what
times for middle and high schools.
is going on during sleep. By carefully recording and observing the experience of volun-
Usually by the mid-20s, young adults go
teers sleeping in laboratories, psychologists have been able to unravel many mysteries of
back to whichever sleeping pattern they
sleep.
showed before puberty, a change that
may mark the final maturity of the brain.
Stages of Sleep On the basis of observations of sleeping volunteers, we divide sleep into two
types: rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non–rapid eye movement (N-REM) sleep. These
types of sleep are differentiated by EEG recordings, muscle tone,
autonomic activity, and mental activity (see ● Figure 6.8). beta wave A waveform of 15 to 30 rapid eye movement (REM)
N-REM sleep is divided into four stages. Stage 1 usually cycles per second recorded by electro- sleep The component of sleep char-
encephalogram that usually indicates acterized by waveforms resembling
occurs when we first go to sleep. Our examination of the par- alert waking. waking, as measured by electroen-
ticipant’s EEG shows patterns that are difficult to distinguish alpha wave A waveform of 9 to 12 cephalogram, accompanied by rapid
from those of the drowsy, waking volunteer. Some theta waves cycles per second recorded by electro- motion of the eyes, muscular paraly-
(4 to 7 cycles per second), which are larger and slower than encephalogram that usually indicates sis, and sympathetic nervous system
activation.
alpha waves, are now observed. At this stage, people may not be relaxed waking.
aware that they are sleeping. Frequently, we awaken a friend or gamma wave A waveform of more
a family member who has fallen asleep in front of the television than 30 cycles per second recorded by
electroencephalogram that indicates
by turning off the program only to have the sleeping person
attention to sensory input.
deny being asleep.

WHAT HAPPENS TO CONSCIOUSNESS DURING WAKING AND SLEEP? 203

Stage 1
N-REM
Theta waves

Stage 2
FIGURE 6.8 N-REM
Sleep spindle K-complex
The EEG During Sleep. Sleep is divided into two
components: rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non-
Stage 3
REM (N-REM) sleep. The EEG during REM sleep is similar to
N-REM
wakefulness. Stages 1 and 2 of N-REM sleep feature theta Delta waves
waves. Special waveforms known as sleep spindles and K
complexes, which might represent the brain’s attempts to
tune out environmental stimuli, appear in stage 2. Stages 3 Stage 4
and 4 of N-REM sleep feature delta waves and represent the N-REM
deepest stages of sleep. Delta waves
Source: Adapted from J. Horne (1988). Why We Sleep: The
Functions of Sleep in Humans and Other Mammals, New York, NY: 0 5 10 15
Oxford University Press. Time (sec)

non–rapid eye movement (N-REM) After 10 to 15 minutes, stage 1 of N-REM sleep gives way to stage 2. Now there is no
sleep The components of sleep character- doubt that the person is asleep. Further reductions in heart rate and muscle tension occur,
ized by theta and delta wave activity, as re- and the EEG begins to show special waveforms called K complexes and sleep spindles that
corded by electroencephalogram, and deep occur only in N-REM sleep. Spindles reflect brain activity associated with the consolidation
physical relaxation. of memories, and their frequency increases after a period of pre-sleep learning (Jegou et al.,
theta wave A waveform of 4 to 7 cycles 2019). Decreased spindle frequency is characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease and reduced cogni-
per second recorded by electroencephalo-
tive functioning (Gorgoni et al., 2016).
gram that is characteristic of lighter stages
of non–rapid eye movement sleep. After about 15 minutes in stage 2, we enter stage 3 and then stage 4 N-REM sleep. Both
delta wave A waveform of 1 to 4 cycles of these stages show delta wave activity, which is the largest, slowest (1 to 4 cycles per second)
per second recorded by electroencephalo- EEG waveform. Stages 3 and 4 differ primarily in the amount of delta activity that occurs,
gram that usually indicates deep non–rapid with stage 4 having the most. We are deeply asleep in these stages. Awakening from stage 4 is
eye movement sleep.

EXPERIENCING PSYCHOLOGY
The Epworth Sleepiness Scale
COLLEGE STUDENTS OFTEN neglect your safety when driving and operating you have not done some of these things
sleep time to study, work, and socialize. other machinery. How much sleepiness is recently, try to work out how they would
Sixty percent of students reported stay- too much? have affected you. Use the scale to choose
ing awake for an entire night at least once Try using the Epworth Sleepiness the most appropriate number for each
since coming to college (Thacher, 2008). Scale to see how sleepy you tend to be situation. A score greater than 10 indicates
Poor sleep habits lead to daytime sleepi- (Johns, 1991). In contrast to just feeling excessive daytime sleepiness. If you scored
ness, which can affect how much you learn tired, how likely are you to doze off or fall at this level or above, it’s time for some
in your classes, how well you work, and asleep in the situations in the list? Even if lifestyle changes. ■

204 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
difficult, and considerable disorientation may occur before a person
becomes fully awake. You may have received a telephone call about an Awake
hour after you first go to sleep, when you are likely to be experiencing
stage 4 N-REM sleep. If you hear the telephone, it may take several
seconds to locate the phone and wake up enough to have a decent REM
conversation. sleep
The first episode of REM sleep occurs between 90 and 120 min-
utes after the onset of sleep. This stage is often called paradoxical Stage 1
sleep, reflecting a combination of brain activity resembling waking N-REM
with the external appearance of deep sleep. During REM sleep, the
EEG cycles between beta and theta rhythms (Vijayan et al., 2017). The Stage 2
eyes make the periodic movements back and forth that give this stage N-REM
its name. The sympathetic nervous system becomes very active. Heart
rate, blood pressure, and breathing become rapid or irregular. Males Stage 3
experience erections, while females experience increased blood flow in N-REM
the vicinity of the vagina (Hirshkowitz & Moore, 1996). If awakened
during this stage, most people report vivid, storylike dreams, which we Stage 4
discuss in more detail in a later section. N-REM
Major postural muscles are inactive during REM sleep, effectively
paralyzing the sleeper, although smaller muscles in the fingers and the
toes might twitch. You might have experienced dreams in which some- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
thing terrible was coming, but you couldn’t move. Your dream probably Time (hours)
reflects recognition on the part of the brain that you are paralyzed.
This paralysis provides a protective mechanism that prevents you FIGURE 6.9
from acting out your dreams. In cases of REM sleep behavior disorder,
paralysis fails, and people injure themselves or their sleeping partners. Nightly Sleep Patterns. Sleep shows a typical progression over
When one patient dreamed of playing football, he knocked everything the night. The first 4 hours are dominated by N-REM sleep, and
off his dresser, hit his head against the wall, and banged his knee on the most stage 3 and 4 N-REM sleep occurs at this time. The second 4
dresser (Schenck et al., 2002). hours feature large amounts of REM sleep.
Because the body is paralyzed during REM sleep, sleepwalking
Source: Adapted from R. D. Cartwright (1978). A Primer on Sleep and
cannot happen in this stage. Instead, sleepwalking occurs when a per-
Dreaming, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
son is in stage 3 or 4 of N-REM sleep. Sleep talking is most common
during lighter stages of N-REM sleep, but it is also possible during
REM sleep. These phenomena become progressively less common with age.
The cycling between REM sleep and N-REM sleep in humans follows a characteristic
pattern over a period of 8 hours of sleep (see ● Figure 6.9). The first half of a night’s sleep
is characterized by longer periods of N-REM sleep and brief periods of REM sleep. Stages 3
and 4 of N-REM sleep are especially dominant during these first 4 hours. The second half of

0 = Would never doze

Situation Chance of dozing
1 = Slight chance of dozing
Sitting and reading 2 = Moderate chance of dozing
Watching television 3 = High chance of dozing

Sitting inactive in a public place (e.g., a theater)

Riding as a car passenger for an hour without a break
Lying down to rest in the afternoon
Sitting and talking to someone
Sitting quietly after lunch without alcohol
In a car, while stopping for a few minutes in traffic

TOTAL SCORE

WHAT HAPPENS TO CONSCIOUSNESS DURING WAKING AND SLEEP? 205

The Benefits of Sleep

Although we still have many unanswered questions about
why we spend one-third of our lives sleeping, we know

Natalie Fobes/SuperStock
that lack of sleep can have many negative effects. Excess
sleepiness on the part of decision makers has contributed
to many disasters, including the Three Mile Island nu-
clear meltdown, the Challenger space shuttle explosion,
and the grounding of the oil tanker Exxon Valdez (Coren,
2012). In 2014, a commuter train at Chicago’s O’Hare
Human error, and sleep deprivation airport controlled by an operator who admitted to dozing
in particular, frequently contributes off ran off the tracks and climbed an escalator. Staying awake for 17 to 19 straight hours produces
to major accidents and disasters. The worse reaction time than being legally drunk (Williamson & Feyer, 2000). Sleep deprivation can
1979 nuclear meltdown at Three Mile result in obesity and risk for type 2 diabetes (Benedict et al., 2016).
Island changed the power industry in Sleep, and in particular stages 3 and 4 of N-REM sleep, plays an important role in repair-
the United States. The 1986 explosion ing the body. Sleep deprivation slows the healing of injuries (Murphy et al., 2007), reduces the
of the space shuttle Challenger rattled activity of the immune system (Zager et al., 2007), and results in the production of fewer new
confidence in the U.S. space program. neurons in adult brains (Akers et al., 2018). Nearly all human growth hormone, which plays
The 1989 oil spill caused by the important roles in repairing the body, is released during stages 3 and 4 of N-REM sleep but
running aground of the tanker Exxon rarely during other stages of sleep and waking (Savine & Sönksen, 2000) (see ● Figure 6.10).
Valdez, shown in this photo, energized Another line of evidence supporting the restorative hypothesis of sleep is the behavior of
concerns about environmental people following daytime physical activity. Aerobic exercise increased the amount of N-REM
protection. More recently, the sleep as well as subjective reports of “feeling rested” (Aritake-Okada et al., 2019).
operator of a commuter train that It is possible to selectively deprive volunteers in a sleep laboratory of stage 3 and 4 N-REM
ran off the tracks up an escalator at sleep. After a night of such deprivation, volunteers typically complain of muscle and joint
Chicago O’Hare International Airport pain (Moldofsky & Scarisbrick, 1976). Because time spent in N-REM sleep decreases about
admitted to “dozing off.” 30 minutes per decade after the age of 50 (Van Cauter et al., 2000), it is possible that reduced
N-REM sleep is the source of some of the muscle and joint aches and pains experienced by
older adults.
Sleep plays a significant role in memory. Staying up all night results in poor memory
performance, and two subsequent nights of normal sleep do not make up for the initial sleep
FIGURE 6.10 deprivation effects (Stickgold & Walker, 2007). Sleep may serve as a special state for consoli-
dating memories, in contrast to the acquisition and initial processing of new memories that
Human Growth Hormone occurs during waking (Rasch & Born, 2013). During N-REM sleep, memories are reactivated
Release. Human growth hormone
stimulates growth and repair. Most
human growth hormone release
occurs during the first 4 hours of sleep
each night, primarily during stages 15
Growth hormone

3 and 4 of N-REM sleep. The drop in

(ng/mL)

time spent in stages 3 and 4 among 10

older adults might contribute to
5
reduced abilities to heal compared to
those of younger adults.
Source: Adapted from R. M. Coleman 6 12 18 24 6 12 18 24
(1986). Wide Awake at 3:00 a.m. by
Choice or by Chance? New York, NY: W. Sleep Awake Sleep Awake Sleep
H. Freeman. Time of day (over 48 hours)

206 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

The Special Benefits of REM Sleep Birds and mammals are the only creatures to
show clear evidence of REM sleep, suggesting that this sleep stage is a fairly recent development
in the course of evolution. When volunteers are specifically deprived of REM sleep, they show
many of the same symptoms as people who experience an overall lack of sleep, including
irritability and difficulty concentrating. In addition, REM sleep-deprived individuals show a
phenomenon known as REM rebound (Dement, 1960). When allowed to sleep normally, they
spend an unusually large amount of their sleep time in REM sleep. You may have experienced
REM rebound during a nap following a night with little sleep. You might be aware of having
dreamed vividly during the nap, and you’re unlikely to feel rested. These attempts to make up
for lost REM sleep suggest that REM sleep is associated with necessary functions.
One clue to a possible function of REM sleep is the fact that the proportion of sleep spent
in REM sleep is a function of a species’ relative maturity at birth (Siegel, 2001). The human
infant, born at an immature stage of brain development relative to other primate species,
spends about half of its sleep time in REM sleep (see ● Figure 6.11), compared to the 20% of
sleep time spent in REM sleep by adolescents and adults (McCarley, 2007). Premature infants
spend up to 80% of their sleep time in REM sleep. REM sleep may provide at least part of the
stimulation necessary to correctly “wire” the immature brain (Grigg-Damberger, 2017; Marks
et al., 1995).
REM sleep and mood are tightly interwoven, providing us with a further clue regarding
the possible functions of REM sleep. As we will see in Chapter 14, individuals with depression
experience disruptions in their normal sleep patterns. Without treatment, they enter REM
sleep earlier in the night than typical participants do, and they spend a greater proportion of
their sleeping time in REM sleep. One of the possible mechanisms by which antidepressant
medications regulate mood is their suppression of REM sleep. Individuals with bipolar disor-
der, which can be characterized by moods that swing from euphoria to depression, experience
an abnormally low need for sleep, including REM sleep.

40
% REM sleep

0
1–15 days 3–5 months 6–23 months 2–3 years 3–5 years 5–9 years 10–13 years 14–18 years 19–30 years 33–45 years 50–70 years 70–80 years

Age

FIGURE 6.11
REM Sleep Over the Life Span. Infants and young children spend greater percentages of their sleep time
in REM sleep than do adolescents and adults, suggesting that brain activity during REM sleep might help
wire the developing brain.
Source: Adapted from H. P. Roffwarg et al. (1966). “Ontogenetic Development of the Human Sleep–Dream Cycle,”
Science, 152, 604–619. doi: 10.1126/science.152.3722.604

WHAT HAPPENS TO CONSCIOUSNESS DURING WAKING AND SLEEP? 207

Dreams From the earliest times in our history, people have searched for
the significance and meaning of their dreams. In ancient Egypt, many
people believed that dreams predicted the future. In his classic book
Jose Luis Pelaez, Inc./Blend Images/Corbis

The Interpretation of Dreams, Freud (1900/1953) argued that the

unconscious mind expressed itself symbolically
through our dreams. These are interesting
ideas, but what does science have to say about
dreaming?
The use of EEG technology to track a volun-
teer’s sleep patterns allowed researchers to awaken
volunteers and assess a dream experience scientifi-
cally for the first time (Aserinsky & Kleitman, 1953;
The activation-synthesis theory of Dement & Kleitman, 1957). Improved methods, including brain imaging, magnetic stimulation,
dream content suggests that the and improved EEG, have produced further insights into dreaming (Cipolli et al., 2016). Rather than
content of dreams represents the proposing sharp distinctions between dreaming during sleep and other types of thought, dream
mind’s efforts to make sense out of activity is seen as being on a continuum extending across focused thought and mind wandering
real physical sensations. During REM during wakefulness to thought-like and dream-like behaviors during sleep.
sleep, the vestibular system of the An activation–synthesis theory of dreaming suggests that the content of dreams simply
inner ear is quite active. Because the reflects ongoing neural activity. For example, dreams of being unable to move in a dangerous
vestibular system normally informs situation might accurately mirror the muscle paralysis present during the REM state (Hobson
us about the position and movement & McCarley, 1977). Common dreams of flying or falling may be caused by the unusual activa-
of the head, vestibular activity tion of the vestibular system during REM sleep (Hunt, 1989). In Chapter 5, we discussed the
during REM sleep might lead to the vestibular system’s role in helping us maintain balance. Dreams with sexual content are consis-
commonly experienced dreams of tent with the physical sexual arousal that occurs during REM sleep. Combining results of brain
flying or falling. imaging experiments and cognitive psychology leads to yet another view of dreams. Dreaming
behavior correlates with activity in circuits that overlap substantially with the DMN (Fox et al.,
2013). According to this view, daydreaming and dreaming during sleep are on a continuum.
Simultaneous changes in brainstem activity result in lower sensitivity to outside stimuli, and
reduced overall frontal lobe activity might lead to less self-awareness and logical thought than
occurs during daydreaming. Once the dream state is initiated, the brain draws on memories of
general knowledge and personal experience to produce a story line (Foulkes, 1999).
About 55% of adults report having experienced at least one episode of lucid dreaming, in
which dreamers become aware that they are dreaming and may use this awareness to control or
direct the content of the dream (Saunders et al., 2016). Lucid dreaming occurs when frontal areas
of the brain inexplicably “wake up” during a dream (Mota-Rolim & Araujo, 2013). Lucid dreaming
is particularly associated with increased activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, an area of the
brain believed to participate in higher-order executive functions, including people’s sense of control
and voluntary behavior (Dresler et al., 2013). People with narcolepsy, a sleep disorder described
in the next section, are more likely than others to experience lucid dreaming (Dodet et al., 2015).

Sleep Disorders
Observing what goes wrong during sleep provides additional insights into the natural varia-
tions of consciousness we experience.
dreaming A mental state that usually
occurs during sleep that features visual Nightmares and Sleep Terrors When the content of a REM dream is especially
imagery.
upsetting, we refer to the experience as a nightmare. If lucid dreamers become stuck in a
lucid dreaming A conscious awareness
nightmare, they may have the option of “changing channels” and exiting that line of content.
of dreaming accompanied by the ability to
control the content of the dream. Some researchers report that training in lucid dreaming may serve as an effective treatment
for recurring, upsetting nightmares (Mota-Rolim & Araujo, 2013).

208 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Nightmares are often mistaken for sleep terrors, but these are different phenomena.
sleep terror A sleep disorder occurring
Nightmares are dreams that occur during REM sleep, while sleep terrors occur during N- in non–rapid eye movement sleep in which
REM sleep, particularly during the first 3 hours of sleep. In sleep terrors, the usually smooth the sleeper wakes suddenly in great dis-
transition from stage 4 N-REM sleep upward into REM sleep goes awry. The sleeper becomes tress but without experiencing the imagery
acutely distressed despite remaining deeply asleep. If awakened, the person shows the disori- of a nightmare.
entation and confusion typically demonstrated when a sleeper is disturbed during deep N- insomnia A sleep disorder characterized
REM sleep. There is usually no memory of the sleep terror the next day. Twin studies suggest by an inability to either initiate or maintain
normal sleep.
that there is a genetic predisposition to sleep terrors (Taheri & Mignot, 2002).
narcolepsy A sleep disorder character-
ized by the intrusion of rapid eye move-
Insomnia After nightmares, the most common sleep problem is insomnia, in which a ment phenomena into waking.
person has difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep. Although most people seem to need
sleep apnea A sleep disorder in which
about 7 to 9 hours of sleep per night to function effectively, wider healthy variations exist. In the person stops breathing while asleep.
one case of “healthy insomnia,” an elderly woman slept only 1 hour per night without apparent
detrimental effects (Meddis et al., 1973).
Insomnia occurs in one of two forms. In cases of onset insomnia, a person lies in bed for
what seems to be a long period but is unable to go to sleep. Stress and anxiety are frequent
causes of this type of insomnia. Maintenance insomnia occurs when sleep is frequently inter-
rupted or early waking occurs. These cases typically result from stress, substance use, or psy-
chological disorders. Insomnia medications, such as zolpidem (Ambien), have minor effects
on sleep, producing sleep 15 minutes faster and lengthening it for about 30 minutes, which
might not offset significant side effects, including dependence on the medication, driving or
walking while asleep, memory loss, and loss of coordination (Buscemi et al., 2007).
Light, and especially the blue light that characterizes mobile technologies, can interfere
with the sleep hormone melatonin. As a result, the use of tablets and smartphones right before
bed can interfere with sleep quality (Grønli et al., 2016). Individuals with insomnia might
benefit from wearing amber glasses, which block the blue light emitted from mobile devices,
prior to bedtime (Shechter et al., 2018).

Narcolepsy and Cataplexy Probably the most dramatic sleep disorder is narcolepsy.
Narcolepsy consists of “sleep attacks,” in which REM sleep occurs during wakefulness (Dahl

Courtesy A. R. Braun, National Institute of

et al., 1994). In addition to sleep attacks, other aspects of REM sleep may intrude into the
wakefulness of patients with narcolepsy. Cataplexy occurs when the muscle paralysis normally
associated with REM sleep occurs during wakefulness without loss of consciousness. Many

Deafness, NIH, Bethesda

patients with narcolepsy also experience sleep paralysis or muscle paralysis that either
precedes actual sleep or lingers once the person has awakened. Although upsetting, this
paralysis is easy to resolve. Simply touching the person is enough to end the paralysis.
Cells in the hypothalamus that normally secrete neurochemicals known as orexins are
missing or damaged in the brains of patients with narcolepsy (Thannickal et al., 2000). Orex-
ins help regulate sleep, arousal, and appetite. Although researchers have been able to selec-
tively breed for narcolepsy in dogs (Foutz et al., 1978), the contribution of genetics to human
narcolepsy is more complex. Narcolepsy results from a combination of genetic vulnerability Brain imaging can be used to compare
and autoimmune processes that attack the cells in the brain that produce orexins (Taheri & activity during waking with activity
Mignot, 2002). This interaction helps to explain an increase in narcolepsy cases in response during sleep. In this image, areas
to certain vaccines for the 2009-2010 H1N1 virus (Bomfim et al., 2017). In genetically vulner- that are blue or purple are less active
able individuals, the vaccine appeared to have triggered an autoimmune process that resulted during REM sleep than during waking,
in narcolepsy. and areas that are red or yellow are
more active during REM sleep than
Breathing-Related Sleep Disorders We take it for granted that automatic functions during waking. The bizarre content
such as breathing continue uninterrupted during sleep, but this is not the case in sleep apnea. of dreams occurring during REM
In a person with sleep apnea, breathing can stop for a minute or two, and the sleeper awakens sleep might be the result of the
abruptly gasping for air. Not only does this lack of air disrupt the sleep quality of the person lower activity in the frontal lobes
with sleep apnea, but it can increase the risk for heart disease (Kendzerska et al., 2014). (purple) at the top of the image. The
Because many cases of sleep apnea occur in people who are obese and who snore, losing visual vividness of dreams might be
weight and surgical correction of airway blockages are common treatments. Other cases occur accounted for by the higher amount
when brainstem neurons responsible for maintaining breathing during sleep malfunction. In of activity in the visual areas of the
these cases, the use of a machine that regulates airflow during sleep is an inconvenient but occipital lobes toward the bottom of
effective solution. the image (yellow and red).

WHAT HAPPENS TO CONSCIOUSNESS DURING WAKING AND SLEEP? 209

Bettmann/Contributor/Getty Images
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
occurs when a healthy infant simply dies while asleep. Approximately 3,500 infants die from
SIDS in the United States each year (Moon & Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome,
2016). Rates prior to the 1990s were even higher. Between 1992 and 2003, rates of SIDS in the
United States were cut in half when the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) began telling
Dr. Mignot

parents to put their infants to sleep on their backs instead of on their stomachs (National
Institute of Child Health and Human Development [NICHHD], 2003). As we will see in
Chapter 11, young infants cannot turn over easily for the first few months of life, making
Sleep researcher Emmanuel Mignot suffocation on blankets and stuffed animals a greater risk.
is holding Bear, one of his dogs with Despite these improvements, SIDS remains the most common cause of death in the first 6
narcolepsy. Research with dogs like months of life in industrialized nations, even as the cause of these cases remains elusive (Krous,
Bear showed that narcolepsy is a 2014). A Triple Risk Model of SIDS suggests that a combination of individual vulnerabilities, de-
genetic disorder often triggered by velopmental period, and stressors such as infection result in death. Current recommendations for
exposure to flu viruses. Sadly, Bear preventing SIDS from the American Academy of Pediatrics include putting infants to sleep on their
passed away in 2014. backs; using a firm sleep surface; room-sharing without bed-sharing; avoidance of soft bedding
and overheating; avoidance of exposure to smoke, alcohol, and illicit drugs; breastfeeding; routine
immunization; use of pacifiers; and skin-to-skin care for newborns (Moon &
Findings that new narcolepsy cases resulted Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, 2016).
from either infection with or vaccination for the
H1N1 flu virus support the idea that narcolepsy is Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS) Restless legs syndrome (RLS)
linked to activity in the immune system. American occurs when one of a person’s limbs, usually a leg, experiences a tingling
vaccines provoking weaker immune responses feeling and moves at regular intervals. RLS appears to be quite common, with
15% of a large sample of adults in the United States reporting these symptoms
were less likely to result in narcolepsy than
(National Sleep Foundation, 2009). Of special interest to psychologists is
stronger European vaccines and the disease itself the high frequency of RLS among children and adults with attention deficit
(Dauvilliers et al., 2010; Dauvilliers et al., 2013). hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and the potential links between these two
conditions (Schimmelmann et al., 2009). As we will see in Chapter 14, ADHD is correlated with
differences in dopamine functioning, a characteristic shared by RLS (Taheri & Mignot, 2002).

The number of deaths from SIDS dropped

dramatically when the American Academy
of Pediatrics began telling parents to put
their babies to sleep on their backs instead
sudden infant death syndrome
(SIDS) A sleep disorder in which an oth- of on their stomachs. SIDS still occurs,
however, so sleeping position is only one
[Link]/alice-photo

erwise healthy infant dies while asleep.

restless legs syndrome (RLS) A disor- of many risk factors, including exposure to
der characterized by the involuntary move- cigarette smoke in the home.
ment of an extremity, usually one leg.

210 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

N-REM sleep
REM
sleep Beta waves
Stage 1 Some theta ● Logical thought.
Stage 1
REM
N-REM
sleep Theta waves Beta waves
● Reduced heart rate and muscle tension.
Stage 2
N-REM
1 ● Some responsiveness to stimuli.
Theta waves
Sleep spindle K-complex

Stage 2 Larger amounts of theta Less responsiveness to stimuli.

REM
Stage 2
sleep Beta waves ●
Stage
N-REM3
REM
N-REM Sleep spindle K-complex
sleep Beta waves

Further reductions in heart rate and

Stage 1 Delta waves
N-REM
Theta waves ●
Stage 3
1

muscle tension.
N-REM
Stage 4
Stage Theta waves
N-REM2 Delta waves
N-REM
Sleep spindleDelta waves
K-complex
Stage 2
N-REM
Stage 4 0 5 10 15
N-REM3
Stage
N-REM
Sleep spindle K-complex
Time (sec)
Delta waves
Stage 3 Some delta ● Further reductions in heart rate and
muscle tension.
Stage 3 0 Delta waves
5 10 15
N-REM
Time (sec)
Delta waves
Stage 4

Larger amounts of delta Profound reductions in heart rate and

N-REM

Stage 4
N-REM
Delta waves Stage 4 ●

muscle tension.
0 5 10 15
Delta(sec)
Time waves

0 5 10 15

Very low responsiveness to stimuli.

Time (sec)
●

REM sleep Similar to waking ● Rapid motion of the eyes.

REM
sleep Beta waves
● Muscle paralysis.
Stage 1
N-REM
Theta waves
● Irregular autonomic activity.
Stage 2
N-REM
Sleep spindle K-complex
● Vivid dreams.
Stage 3
N-REM
Delta waves

Stage 4
N-REM
Delta waves

0 5 10 15
Time (sec)

How Is Consciousness
Affected by Brain Damage?
If consciousness is a function of the brain, we should be able to identify aspects of conscious-
ness that change reliably when the brain is damaged.

Specific Areas of Brain Damage and

Consciousness
Lessons about consciousness have emerged from the clinical study of patients with damage to
specific parts of the nervous system.
The effects of brain damage on face recognition illustrate how the brain integrates sen-
sory information, memory, and emotion to form a conscious experience. Prosopagnosia is
a condition that affects a person’s ability to recognize faces (Bauer, 1984). One patient was
unable to identify familiar faces but was still able to show differing autonomic responses to
familiar versus unfamiliar faces. Separate pathways process the features of faces, emotional
responses to faces, and recognition of faces.
In a situation that is reminiscent of many horror film classics, patients with Capgras
syndrome are convinced that imposters have taken the place of familiar people. In certain

HOW IS CONSCIOUSNESS AFFECTED BY BRAIN DAMAGE? 211

Coma, Vegetative State, Brain Death,

and Near-Death
Consciousness is altered not only by damage in particular areas of the brain but by the severity
of damage as well.
Prosopagnosia results from damage
Coma Our word coma comes from the Greek word for “deep sleep.” Coma produces a
to a part of the temporal lobes on
profound state of unconsciousness in which the person does not have sleep–wake cycles,
the bottom of the brain known as the
cannot be awakened, does not respond to pain or light, and is incapable of voluntary behavior.
fusiform face area (FFA). In this scan
Coma usually results from disruptions in the functions of the reticular formation or both
using functional magnetic resonance
cerebral hemispheres (Liversedge & Hirsch, 2010). A stroke affecting a single hemisphere
imaging (fMRI), the FFA activity
typically does not lead to coma. Comas last anywhere from a few days to several weeks. After
indicates that the person is looking at
a period of 2 to 4 weeks, most patients recover, move into a vegetative state (described later
the image of a face as opposed to a
in this section), or die. Among those who recover, improvement is usually slow and gradual.
landscape or building.
EEG recordings of comatose patients vary depending on the problem that initially led to
Source: From Timothy J. Andrews
coma. Following resuscitation from cardiac arrest, many patients show a distinctive pattern of
et al. (2010). “Internal and External
alpha rhythms, especially in the frontal lobes, known as alpha coma (Chatrian, 1990). These
Features of the Face Are Represented
alpha patterns do not change when the patient is exposed to various types of stimulation.
Holistically in Face-Selective Regions
Other patterns feature a low level of overall activity occasionally interrupted by spikes. None
of Visual Cortex,” The Journal of
of these patterns are found in the typical, healthy EEG described previously in our section on
Neuroscience, 30(9), 3544–3552,
sleep and waking (see ● Figure 6.12).
doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4863–09.2010.

Vegetative State (VS) Coma can be distinguished from similar conditions, such as
vegetative state (VS) and brain death. VS often follows a period of coma. VS is characterized
by waking without consciousness. In contrast to the patient with coma, patients with VS look
rather normal. Their eyes open periodically; they demonstrate sleep and waking cycles; they
grind their teeth, scream, smile, and cry. Some are responsive to pain. The discovery that about
coma A state of deep unconsciousness 20% of patients diagnosed as being in a vegetative state are actually conscious yet unable to
resulting from brain damage or illness.
respond physically has changed the evaluation, treatment, and legal standing of unresponsive
vegetative state (VS) An abnormal patients (Owen, 2019; see ● Figure 6.13).
state following brain injury featuring wake-
fulness without consciousness.
Brain Death With the advent of technologies that can artificially maintain bodily
functions, including respiration and blood circulation, we have been placed in the odd
position of requiring a new definition of death. Brain death is defined as an irreversible loss of
all functions of the brain including the brainstem (Russell et al., 2019). Although professional

Normal EEG

Comatose EEG

FIGURE 6.12
Normal Versus Comatose EEGs. Even though the patient with the normal EEG recording is drowsy, which should produce a dominant
pattern of alpha waves, the normal recording is quite different from the more uniform alpha activity recorded from a patient in a coma.

212 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

FIGURE 6.13
Is Consciousness Possible in VS Patients? Using functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI), a small number of patients diagnosed as being
B Patient 54 in a vegetative state (VS) showed brain activation to specific tasks that
closely resembled the activation of healthy control participants. The
yellow-red areas were active when thinking about movement, and the
bluish areas were active when thinking about a spatial task. This research
emphasizes the need to develop new ways of assessing the cognitive
correlates of brain injuries so that patients can receive the best care
possible.
Source: From Martin M. Monti et al. (2010). “Willful Modulation of Brain Activity in
Disorders of Consciousness,” New England Journal of Medicine, 362(7), 579–589, doi:
10.1056/NEJMoa0905370

associations have provided guidance regarding the determination of brain death, actual
practices and policies vary widely within the United States and abroad (Greer et al., 2016).
Although medical experts claim that no patients appropriately diagnosed with brain death
have ever recovered, sensational media accounts of individuals who recover after hearing
their organ donation process discussed by hospital staff emphasize the need to have complete
compliance with the best standards possible (Nguyen, 2016).

Near-Death Experiences Because of improvements in technology that literally bring

people “back to life,” as many as one out of ten people has reported a near-death experience.
Patients who recover following a cardiac arrest or some other life-threatening condition often
report similar experiences. These experiences typically feature an out-of-body experience in
which people feel they are viewing their body from a floating position above it. In addition,
many people report a “light at the end of the tunnel” visual experience, which may include
images of deceased friends, relatives, or deities. These visual sensations are accompanied by a Brain death is often determined by
peaceful, calm emotional state and followed by a reluctant return to the body. a study of blood circulation. In this
The similarities among documented cases of near-death experiences suggest that the image, blood can be seen flowing into
dying-revival experience produces consistent responses in the human brain similar to the in- the neck, scalp, and face (particularly
trusion of REM sleep into waking. In animal models of cardiac arrest, a surge of brain activity the nose, which leads to the phrase
occurs near death, suggesting a state of heightened consciousness (Borjigin et al., 2013). Strong “hot nose sign”). However, no blood
out-of-body sensations and other near-death phenomena occur in volunteers using ketamine flow is seen in the brain itself, which
(Martial et al., 2019). A damaged brain may release its own chemicals, similar to ketamine, in remains dark. A careful determination
an effort to minimize cell loss. of brain death is required because
of the common practice of organ
donation following death.
Seizures Source: Reprinted by permission of
Seizures are uncontrolled electrical disturbances in the brain that often produce changes in the Society of Nuclear Medicine from:
consciousness, providing further evidence that cortical activity is correlated with conscious- A. MacDonald, & S. Burrell (2009).
ness. People with recurring seizures are diagnosed with epilepsy. Seizures occur as a result of “Infrequently Performed Studies in
brain injury or infection but can also appear without an obvious cause. Disturbances in the Nuclear Medicine: Part 2,” Journal of
activity of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA might account for many seizures. Drugs Nuclear Medicine Technology, 37(1), 1–13.
that inhibit GABA reliably produce seizures, while drugs that enhance GABA activity, such as Figure 5. doi: 10.2967/jnmt.108.057851
barbiturates, prevent or control seizures.

HOW IS CONSCIOUSNESS AFFECTED BY BRAIN DAMAGE? 213

FIGURE 6.14
Pathways for the Spread of Partial and Generalized
Seizures. (a) Partial seizures originate in a focal area
and spread to cortical and subcortical structures. (b)

© Argosy Publishing, Inc.

Generalized seizures do not originate in a focal area.
Once they begin, generalized seizures spread through
the brain symmetrically via connections between the Thalamus
thalamus and the cortex. (a) Partial seizure (b) Generalized seizure

Seizures are classified as partial or generalized. Partial seizures originate in a particular

part of the brain known as the focal area and are often accompanied by an aura or a premo-
nition that a seizure is about to occur. Generalized seizures do not arise from a focal area.
Instead, these seizures are characterized by the abnormal activation of circuits connecting the
cortex and the thalamus. Generalized seizures are typically not accompanied by an aura (see
● Figure 6.14).
Partial seizures originating in the temporal lobe often produce distortions of conscious-
ness, leading to the experience of déjà vu (French for “already seen”), a feeling that one is reliv-
ing the past, or jamais vu (French for “never seen”), a sense that one’s familiar circumstances
are suddenly foreign or strange. Consciousness is lost completely in generalized seizures. The
two major categories of generalized seizure are tonic-clonic and absence seizures. Tonic-clonic
seizures begin with a loss of consciousness, cessation of breathing, and intense muscular
contraction. This phase usually gives way to violent, rhythmic contractions that may result in
broken bones or other physical injuries. These phases are followed by a period of coma, last-
ing about 5 minutes. In an absence seizure, the person loses consciousness and awareness of
surroundings, and motor movements are limited to blinking, head turns, and eye movements.

How Do People Intentionally

Alter Their States of
near-death experience An altered
state of consciousness reported by people
who were close to death because of cardiac
Consciousness?
or other medical problems that features Humans have intentionally altered consciousness in religious, recreational, and healing con-
out-of-body experiences, light-at-the-end- texts. Methods may vary dramatically, but we will see that some common themes of these
of-a-tunnel perceptions, and a state of
efforts emerge. Individuals who deliberately alter their state of consciousness may be seeking
calmness.
insight, positive emotion (bliss or ecstasy), or a sense of unity or “oneness.” The universality of
seizure An abnormal level of brain activa-
tion with a sudden onset.
such efforts, which often underlie religious behavior, strongly suggests that these states confer
some advantages, although what those advantages may be remains unknown.

214 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Tolerance and Withdrawal Tolerance occurs when a person must take larger

AP Images/Per Johansson
quantities of a drug to produce the desired effects. The nervous system seeks to maintain
homeostasis, a steady internal balance or equilibrium discussed further in Chapter 7.
When a person takes a drug repeatedly, the nervous system attempts to compensate for
the drug’s effects. These compensations are both biological and learned (via mechanisms
described in more detail in Chapter 8). The user must take more of a drug to overcome
these compensations.
When some habitually used drugs are no longer available, the user might experience Most animals avoid psychoactive
withdrawal, a set of effects that are the opposite of those produced by the drug. Withdrawing substances, but this Swedish moose
from alcohol, which slows down the nervous system, produces a rebound effect characterized managed to get stuck in a tree after
by so much excess brain activity that life-threatening seizures might occur. Withdrawing from eating fermented apples that had
stimulants such as caffeine can make the user sluggish and lethargic. Not all drugs that are fallen on the ground. We have no way
abused produce significant withdrawal. For example, heroin and nicotine produce powerful of knowing whether the moose was
withdrawal effects, but cocaine usually does not (Coffey et al., 2000). motivated by a desire to experience
an altered state of consciousness or it
Addiction Addiction is a compulsive physical or psychological dependence on a substance simply liked the taste of the fruit.
or activity that continues in spite of negative consequences. Addiction overwhelms normal
control of behavior, distorts typical systems of reward, and interferes with the recognition of psychoactive drug Any drug with the
problems. capability of altering a person’s state of
In addiction, people make choices consciousness.
on the basis of short-term outcomes tolerance The need to administer greater
(getting high) instead of on the basis quantities of a drug to achieve the same
subjective effect.
of long-term outcomes (family, finances,
job, and staying out of jail). This disrup- withdrawal Physical responses to the
removal of some habitually administered
tion in normal, logical decision making drugs.
can occur because of distortions in one
addiction A compulsive physical or psy-
or more of three related neural systems: chological dependence on a substance or
an impulsive system involving dopamine activity that continues in spite of negative
pathways connecting the midbrain and consequences.
the basal ganglia, a reflective system in
the frontal lobes that weighs the pros
and the cons of a decision and controls Should we be concerned about military
impulses, and a craving system involving veterans returning from service in
the insula (Noël et al., 2013; see ● Figure Afghanistan with opioid addictions? If
6.15). Activity in the insula is correlated the experiences of returning Vietnam
Zalmai/Contributor/Reportage Archive/Getty Images

with participants’ craving for their drug veterans are repeated, the answer
of choice, and strokes that damage the will be “no.” Even though heroin was
insula eliminate the urge to use some readily available in Vietnam and large
addictive drugs (Verdejo-Garcia et al., numbers of soldiers used heroin while
2012). Excess activity in the impulsive serving, nearly all quit using upon their
system, inadequate activity in the reflec- return to the United States. These
tive system, and increased desire appear observations remind us that addiction
to set the stage for maintaining compul- is a complex phenomenon with
sive addictive behaviors. multiple causes.

HOW DO PEOPLE INTENTIONALLY ALTER THEIR STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS? 215

Insula

Basal ganglia
Frontal lobe

(b)

FIGURE 6.15
Addiction Involves Multiple Brain
Networks. Addiction is correlated with
activity in a number of brain circuits.
(a) An impulsive, reward-seeking system
Nucleus
that uses the neurochemical dopamine accumbens
connects the midbrain (ventral tegmental Amygdala
area and substantia nigra) with the basal
Hippocampus
ganglia, including the nucleus accumbens.
Ventral tegmental area Substantia
A reflective system involving the frontal
nigra
lobes controls impulses and makes
decisions. (b) A craving system involves (a) Projections of dopaminergic neurons
the insula.

Commonly Used Psychoactive Drugs

Marijuana Cannabis, from the Cannabis sativa plant, has a long human history. It was
included in the pharmacy written by Chinese emperor Shen Neng nearly 5,000 years ago.
Marijuana, the smoked form of cannabis, remains the most commonly used federally illegal
substance in the United States today. The behavioral effects of cannabis are often so
subtle that people may report no changes in response to its use. Most individuals
Basal ganglia
(movement) experience some excitation, vivid imagery, and mild euphoria. Others respond
with depression and social withdrawal. Cannabis distorts perception of
time and space and produces hallucinations in some users, leading to its
formal classification as a hallucinogen.
Cannabis contains more than 50 psychoactive compounds,
Prefontal cortex known as cannabinoids. The most important of these is tetrahydro-
(reasoning) cannabinol (THC). THC produces some of its behavioral effects
by interacting with receptors for endogenous cannabinoids, natu-
ral substances that are similar to THC in chemical composition.
One type of cannabinoid receptor is located in parts of the brain
involved with pain, appetite, learning, reasoning, and movement
(see ● Figure 6.16). Another type is found elsewhere in the body,
particularly in structures associated with the immune system.
Hypothalamus
(appetite)
FIGURE 6.16
Hippocampus
(memory) Cerebellum Locations of Cannabinoid Receptors in the Brain. Cannabinoids,
(movement)
Medulla such as THC, interact with receptors located in many parts of the
(nausea) Spinal cord brain. In particular, cannabinoid receptors are numerous in the
(pain)
hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex.

216 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

45
hallucinogens can be useful in treating
conditions such as depression, anxiety, and 40
substance abuse. % Drinking days
35 % Heavy drinking days
WHAT EVIDENCE SUPPORTS THIS
30
POSITION?
Since the 1950s, studies evaluating the 25
safety and efficacy of hallucinogens
20
for the treatment of a number of First
psychological disorders have produced psilocybin
15
promising results. This line of research treatment
following
was complicated by the recreational use 10
week 4
of hallucinogens in the 1960s and 1970s, assessment
which led to government restrictions 5
of their availability and use in research. 0
Research on the therapeutic potential
e

6
lin

1–

5–

–2

–3
9–

of hallucinogens resumed in the 1990s

25
ks

ks
Ba

s
ee

and continues to expand (dos Santos &

ee
W

6.17
W

Hallack, 2020). Hallucinogens appear FIGURE

particularly effective in treating cases of
MDD, anxiety, and substance abuse. In Participants in treatment for alcohol dependence received psychotherapy
published research, adverse reactions have during weeks 1 through 4, followed by two treatments with psilocybin at
been very infrequent or completely absent. week 4 and again at week 8. Both drinking days and heavy drinking days were
Results have been promising enough to reduced significantly and persistently following treatment.
gain support of the U.S. Food and Drug Source: M. P. Bogenschutz et al. (2015). “Psilocybin-assisted Treatment for Alcohol
Administration for further research with Dependence: A Proof-of-concept Study.” Journal of Psychopharmacology, 29(3),
larger sample sizes. 289–299. doi: 10.1177/0269881114565144

HOW DO PEOPLE INTENTIONALLY ALTER THEIR STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS? 217

Laguna Design/Science Photo Library/Corbis

people. Because THC shares anandamide’s ability to stimulate dopamine activity,
cannabis has the potential to produce dependency (Weinstein & Gorelick, 2011).

LSD In 1938, researcher Albert Hoffman reported some unusual sensations

after working with lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Hoffman then deliberately
ingested some of the chemical and reported vivid, colorful visual hallucinations.
LSD is chemically similar to serotonin, and it interacts with serotonin
receptors (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016). LSD use is correlated with increased
activity in the visual cortex, changes in alpha activity recorded using EEG,
Lysergic acid, a metabolite of LSD, and decreased connectivity in the default mode network (Carhart-Harris et al., 2016). These
is similar in chemical structure findings are consistent with participants’ reports of their hallucination experiences. One of
to naturally occurring serotonin. the interesting cognitive outcomes of LSD use is the experience of flashbacks, intrusive and
Although the exact mechanism involuntary hallucinations, even after the drug has been discontinued (Halpern & Pope,
responsible for producing 2003). Further research is necessary to identify the mechanisms for this experience.
hallucinations is poorly understood,
we do know that lysergic acid Caffeine Caffeine, used by 85% of adults in the United States, is a stimulant found in
interacts with serotonin receptors. a range of sources, including coffee, tea, cola, energy drinks, and many over-the-counter
stimulant Any drug that increases the
pain relievers (Temple et al., 2017; see ● Figure 6.18). Caffeine interferes with the inhibition
activity of the nervous system.

CONNECTING TO RESEARCH
Psychedelics and Consciousness
Psychedelic drugs, including LSD, took care to exclude participants who
psilocybin, and ketamine, produce were pregnant, who reported any one of
profound changes in perception and a number of health conditions, or who
ongoing awareness without a loss of reported a history of substance abuse
consciousness like that occurring during or mental health issues. It is interesting
sleep or anesthesia. As such, they provide to note that all participants had used

Adam Hart-Davis/Science Source

interesting insights into our definitions psychedelics before, although the authors
of conscious experience. Researchers did not provide further information about
investigated the effects of these three their recruiting methods. The study was
psychedelics on a measure of consciousness cleared by the appropriate institutional
(Schartner et al., 2017). review board (see Chapter 2).

The Question: What do psychedelics do to RESULTS

consciousness?
Compared to placebo, all three drugs
METHODS increased measures of “signal diversity.”
Psilocybin extracted from hallucinogenic
High levels of signal diversity imply that
Forty-eight healthy adults underwent mushrooms, along with ketamine and LSD,
the brain is busy doing multiple, complex
magnetoencephalography, a method for produced a higher level of brain activity than
things, whereas low levels imply a more
recording the tiny amounts of magnetic that which is usually seen in conscious waking.
quiet, less complex mental state.
output from the brain, after having been
administered a placebo and again after the CONCLUSIONS the levels of signal diversity that might
administration of one of the following drugs: characterize typical variations in sleep and
The authors argued that the psychedelic
LSD, psilocybin, or ketamine. waking but also less typical states such as
state provides an even more active state of
mania (see Chapter 16). ■
ETHICS consciousness than that which occurs during
focused wakefulness and REM sleep. They
While the doses used in this experiment
suggested using similar analyses to assess
were within safe boundaries, the researchers

218 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Source: Adapted from C. O. Byer & No-Doz ® —1 tablet

L. W. Shainberg (1995). Living Well:
Anacin ® —1 tablet
Health in Your Hands (2nd ed.), New
York, NY: HarperCollins. The Starbucks Starbucks Chai Latte—16 oz.
Jolt and Red Bull data are from L. P.
Jolt Cola—12 oz.
Somogyi (2010). Caffeine Intake by the
U.S. Population, retrieved from http:// Red Bull—8.3 oz.

[Link]/Studiocasper
[Link]/downloads/AboutFDA/
CentersOffices/OfficeofFoods/CFSAN / 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Caffeine (in milligrams)
CFSANFOIAElectronicReadingRoom/
[Link] *Amount of caffeine depends on type of product, brewing method, and formulation.

DIVERSE VOICES IN PSYCHOLOGY

Entheogens Across Cultures

AS WE MENTION in this chapter, many illegal in most countries. However, legal original context of the ritual. “Pseudo-
historical efforts to achieve altered states of exceptions have been made for use of shamans” are quite ready to make money
consciousness emerged in religious contexts. ayahuasca in religious settings. In 2006, from gullible tourists. The death of several
These methods for producing altered the U.S. Supreme Court decided to allow ayahuasca tourists has raised concerns about
states frequently move out of their original ayahuasca churches to continue to use tea the safety of the ayahuasca retreats.
contexts, such as the migration of drum during their ceremonies. Outside the religious context, scientists
circles from Native American culture into A popular interest in ayahuasca has continue to be interested in possible
contemporary men’s gatherings. led to the development of ayahuasca applications of the main ingredients of
Use of drugs, and hallucinogens in retreats in Peru, Colombia, and Brazil. This ayahuasca for treating depression and other
particular, have a long history in religious commercialization of the practice brings psychological disorders (Sessa & Johnson,
rituals. When used in religious contexts, money to poor regions but threatens the 2015; Domínguez-Clavé et al., 2016).
hallucinogens are often referred to
as entheogens, loosely translated as
“generating the divine within.” In South Many hallucinogens have
America, people were using a brew known their historical roots in
as ayahuasca centuries ago as part of their religious practice. In South
religious rituals, but the practice has since America, a hallucinogenic
spread globally. Ayahuasca contains the tea known as ayahuasca has
hallucinogen N, N-dimethyltryptamine been used for centuries.
(DMT), which like most hallucinogens Interest on the part of
is chemically very similar to serotonin. tourists has led to the
DMT, which occurs naturally in small establishment of ayahuasca
amounts in the brain, produces vivid visual retreats, but opinions about
hallucinations and euphoria but also intense
Abigail Taylor

the commercialization of
vomiting. In contrast to the acceptance of historical religious practices
ayahuasca in South America, DMT use is are mixed.

HOW DO PEOPLE INTENTIONALLY ALTER THEIR STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS? 219

Nicotine After caffeine, the most commonly used stimulant in the United States is
nicotine, usually in the form of smoked or chewed tobacco (see ● Figure 6.19). Although
rates of smoked tobacco use have dropped dramatically, use of e-cigarettes is growing,
fueled by an inaccurate belief in the relative “safety” of smokeless nicotine (Perikleous
et al., 2018). Nicotine mimics the action of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, increasing
heart rate and blood pressure, reducing fatigue, and improving cognitive performance
while at the same time producing muscular relaxation. Normally, our bodies feel
somewhat tense when we are mentally alert, so nicotine’s combination of relaxation with
alertness is unique.
Despite repeated warnings of the dangers of using nicotine, it continues to be a
widely used substance (see Chapter 16). Nicotine use typically begins in adolescence, and
adolescents become more rapidly dependent on the substance than do adults (Dani &
Harris, 2005). People with anxiety, depression, and substance abuse disorders are more
likely to use nicotine than others (Stanton et al., 2016). Use of tobacco is very common

20 20
Blood nicotine concentration (ng/ml)

Blood nicotine concentration (ng/ml)

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 30 60 90 120 0 30 60 90 120
Time (in minutes) Time (in minutes)
Drug Peak Drug Peak
administered response administered response
(a) Smoking cigarettes (b) Chewing tobacco

FIGURE 6.19
Concentration of a Drug in the Blood Supply Depends on the Method of Administration. Drug effects depend on the concentration of
the drug in the blood supply, and some methods of administration produce effective concentrations faster than others. In the case of nicotine,
smoking a cigarette (a) produces a faster increase in blood nicotine concentration than produced by chewing an equivalent dose of tobacco
(b). However, chewing tobacco produces higher sustained concentrations of nicotine than smoking does.
Source: Adapted from W. Bennett (1983). “The Nicotine Fix,” Rhode Island Medical Journal, 66, 455–458.

220 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Cocaine and Amphetamines The behavioral effects of cocaine and amphetamines

are quite similar. At moderate doses, cocaine and amphetamines produce alertness, elevated
mood, confidence, and a sense of well-being. At higher doses, these drugs can produce
symptoms that are quite similar to schizophrenia (see Chapter 14). Users experience
hallucinations, such as a feeling of bugs running on the skin, and delusional fears that others
are trying to harm them. Some users experience repetitive motor behaviors, such as chewing
movements or grinding the teeth. Methamphetamine, the current commonly abused form of
amphetamines, is particularly likely to lead to symptoms of psychosis (Lecomte et al., 2018;
see ● Figure 6.20).
Although they produce similar types of behavior, cocaine and amphetamines act somewhat
differently at the synapse. Both drugs distort the action of dopamine transporters, gates that
move previously released dopamine back into the presynaptic cell (see Chapter 4), but they do
so differently. Methamphetamine mimics dopamine, leading it to be moved out of the synaptic

FIGURE 6.20
Methamphetamine Produces
Serious Health Consequences. (a)
(a) Methamphetamine users are likely
to experience psychotic symptoms,
probably because of substantial loss
of brain volume in areas related to
memory, emotion, and reward. (b)
Methamphetamine also stimulates
Courtesy of the Minnesota Department of Corrections

clenching and grinding of teeth,

leading to a pattern of dental decay
known as “meth mouth.”
Source: Adapted from S. Berman et al.
(2008). Abuse of amphetamines and
structural abnormalities in the brain.
Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences, 1141, 195–220. doi: 10.1196/
(b) annals.1441.031

HOW DO PEOPLE INTENTIONALLY ALTER THEIR STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS? 221

Methylphenidate (Ritalin) As we will see in Chapter 15, many children

diagnosed with ADHD are treated with stimulant medications. The two most
common choices are methylphenidate or a combination of amphetamine
salts (Adderall). Both of these drugs boost the activity of dopamine and
norepinephrine, which in turn increases users’ ability to stay alert and concentrate.
Bettmann/Contributor/Getty Images
At clinical doses, these drugs do not seem to produce dependence, although
they affect sleep and appetite. It is a common misconception that only people
diagnosed with ADHD respond to these drugs with increased concentration. In
fact, everybody reacts to these drugs in similar ways (Agay et al., 2010), which
has led to an increase in their nonprescribed use by college students and others
wishing to get a competitive edge in intellectual work.

MDMA
(Ecstasy) 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, or
Ecstasy) is a relative of amphetamines and the hallucinogen mescaline that increases
Before World War I, many commercial heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature. MDMA increases sociability
products contained cocaine. Freud by stimulating the activity of serotonin and oxytocin (Thompson et al., 2007).
originally believed that cocaine was an MDMA mimics serotonin and is actually taken up more readily than serotonin itself by serotonin
effective antidepressant. The ability transporters. Once inside the cell, MDMA interferes with the storage of serotonin in vesicles and
of cocaine to produce rapid addiction causes the transporters to begin acting in reverse, resulting in the release of large amounts of
eventually changed people’s minds serotonin. Serotonin becomes trapped in the synaptic gap by the malfunctioning transporters,
about the safety of the drug. allowing it to continue to interact with receptors. Any excess serotonin activity resulting from
MDMA use, overdose of antidepressants, or combinations of certain drugs can produce serotonin
syndrome. Symptoms include dehydration, exhaustion, hyperthermia (high core body temperature),
convulsions, and death (Pilgrim et al., 2011). MDMA has a smaller
effect on dopamine than on serotonin, but the drug can still produce
some dependency.
Use of MDMA is controversial, with some scientists express-
ing concern about its apparent detrimental effects on neurons that
release serotonin (Capela et al., 2007; Biezonski & Meyer, 2011).
On the other hand, MDMA has been used experimentally to treat
alcohol use disorder and the anxiety related to autism spectrum
disorder (Sessa et al., 2019). Use of MDMA for the treatment of post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is awaiting approval by the U.S.
National Institute on Drug Abuse

Food and Drug Administration (FDA; Sessa et al., 2019).

Alcohol Alcohol is one of the earliest psychoactive drugs used by

humans, dating back into our prehistory. In addition to seeking the
relaxation produced by alcohol, early humans might have turned to
fermented beverages as a safety precaution against contaminated
water supplies because alcohol has natural antiseptic qualities.
MDMA (Ecstasy) appears to have At low doses, alcohol dilates blood vessels, giving people a warm, flushed feeling. It re-
long-term detrimental effects on duces anxiety, which makes relatively shy people more outgoing at a party. At higher doses,
neurons that release serotonin, alcohol’s inhibition of the higher levels of the brain leads to aggression, risky behaviors, and
associated with mood, appetite, sleep, poor motor coordination. At very high doses, alcohol can produce coma and death, either
and aggression. from suppression of breathing or aspiration of vomit.

222 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Opioids Natural or synthetic substances that interact with endorphin receptors are known
as opioids. Opioids that are derived from the opium poppy are known as opiates. The opium
poppy is the source of several psychoactive opiates, including morphine and codeine. Heroin
can be synthesized through further processing of morphine. These substances are effective
because they imitate the action of endorphins (short for endogenous morphine). Neurons
possessing endorphin receptors are located in parts of the brain involved with pain, stress, and
attachment. The activity of both natural endorphins and opioids results in the release of large
amounts of dopamine, leading to feelings of well-being and reduction of pain.
Opioids have legitimate medical purposes, including pain control, cough suppression, and
control of diarrhea. At low doses typical in medical practice, opioids produce a sense of eupho-
ria, pain relief, reduced anxiety, muscle relaxation, and sleep. The higher doses characteristic of
opioid abuse affect consciousness by producing a strong, rapid onset feeling of euphoria, or a
“rush.” With even higher doses, opioids exert a strong depression on breathing, occasionally
leading to death.
Beginning in the 1990s, the United States has experienced an “opioid epidemic.” Between
1999 and 2017, 700,000 people died from opioid overdose, or a current rate of about 130 per
day (Centers for Disease & Prevention, 2019). The epidemic struck in three waves: a period of
abuse of prescription opioids, abuse of heroin, and most recently, abuse of synthetic opioids
such as fentanyl (see ● Figure 6.21). Law enforcement and health care entities are scrambling
to intervene through awareness and education efforts.

10
Other synthetic opioids
9 e.g., Tramadol and fentanyl,
prescribed or illicitly manufactured
8
Deaths per 100,000 population

6 Commonly prescribed opioids

Natural & semi-synthetic opioids
and methadone
5 Heroin

4 FIGURE 6.21
3 The U.S. Opioid
Epidemic. Beginning in 1999, the
2 United States has experienced three
waves of an opioid epidemic that
1 has claimed over 700,000 lives. The
current rate of opioid overdose is
0 about four times higher than the
1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

homicide rate and nearly double the

rate of traffic fatalities.
Wave 1: rise in Wave 3: rise in Source: [Link]
Wave 2: rise in heroin
prescription opioid synthetic opioid images/epidemic/3WavesOfTheRiseInOpi
overdose deaths
overdose deaths overdose deaths
[Link]

HOW DO PEOPLE INTENTIONALLY ALTER THEIR STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS? 223

Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Nondrug Methods for Altering Consciousness
Hypnosis Hypnosis is “a state of consciousness involving focused attention and reduced
peripheral awareness characterized by an enhanced capacity for response to suggestion”
(Elkinset al., 2015, p. 6).
Misunderstandings about what hypnosis can and cannot do are common. Early research
suggested that hypnotized people were more likely to comply with requests to do dangerous
things, such as pick up a poisonous snake or throw a beaker of what they believed to be acid
into an experimenter’s face (Rowland, 1939; Young, 1952). However, later experiments showed
that equal compliance could be obtained with participants who were not hypnotized (Orne &
Evans, 1965). In these situations, the participants’ strong belief that the experimenters would
be unwilling to harm them overrode any measurable influence of hypnosis. Contrary to popu-
lar belief (and a number of television crime shows), hypnosis does not sharpen memory and
is instead likely to make it worse (Register & Kihlstrom, 1987). Hypnosis does have legitimate
uses in therapy, however, including habit change (quitting smoking, etc.; Barnes et al., 2019),
relieving symptoms of irritable bowel syndrome (Slomski, 2019), and pain relief (Taylor &
Genkov, 2019).
One study that illustrates both the power and the limitations of hypnosis used a task
known as the Stroop test (Stroop, 1935; Raz et al., 2006). In the Stroop test, participants are
asked to respond to the color of the letters they are shown (see ● Figure 6.22). When the ink
color and the word are congruent (e.g., the word red appears in red ink), reaction time is
significantly faster (100–200 milliseconds faster) than when the ink color and the word are
incongruent (e.g., the word red appears in green ink). Nearly everyone who can read shows
a robust Stroop effect, and extensive training does not make the effect go away. This effect is
typically explained in terms of a well-practiced skill (reading) taking precedence over a less
practiced skill (naming the colors of letters). When instructed to ignore the practiced skill,
hypnosis An altered state of conscious- attention is compromised, and reaction time becomes slower.
ness characterized by relaxation and in- Using a posthypnotic suggestion, Raz et al. (2006) told their participants to respond to
creased suggestibility. a cue by viewing the stimuli as gibberish instead of real words. Participants were assessed
for their individual differences in suggestibility, or the ease with which someone can be

Sergey Peterman/[Link]

Frustrated licensed psychotherapist Steve Eichel demonstrated the lack of regulation of hypnotherapists by acquiring a number of impressive-
looking credentials for Zoe D. Katze, who happens to be Eichel’s cat. Zoe’s name is a wordplay on the German die Katze, which literally means
“the cat.” Only three states in the United States have mandatory licensing and registration for hypnotherapists. Six others do not have
mandatory licensing but regulate the practice somewhat. Many licensed psychotherapists like Eichel use hypnosis in their practices.

224 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Copyright 2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
hypnotized. Participants who were rated as having low suggestibility performed in a typical (a) (b)
manner on the Stroop test. In contrast, participants rated as having high suggestibility dem-
onstrated little difference between the amount of time needed to identify the ink colors in Red Blue
the congruent and the incongruent conditions. The ability of posthypnotic suggestion to
minimize the Stroop effect is remarkable because other efforts to modulate the effect have all
Yellow Green
failed. Clearly, hypnotic suggestion has the ability to reorganize cognitive processes, at least in Blue Yellow
highly suggestible individuals. Green Red
Green Green
Meditation Meditation techniques vary widely and may occur in either religious or Yellow Blue
nonreligious contexts. When experienced practitioners are asked to describe the subjective
Blue Red
experience produced by meditation, they describe a conscious state without thought,
accompanied by a blissful emotional state (Travis, 2001). A variation on meditation known as
mindfulness meditation has been used more frequently over recent years to treat substance
FIGURE 6.22
abuse and a variety of psychological disorders (Wielgosz et al., 2019). Mindfulness refers to
Hypnosis and the Stroop
“nonjudgmental awareness of experiences in the present moment” (Hölzel et al., 2011, p. 537).
Test. Under normal circumstances,
Meditation incorporating mindfulness also appears to produce benefits in immune function,
results of the Stroop test show that
blood pressure, stress hormone levels, and cognitive functioning.
participants identify ink colors faster
Brain activity correlates of meditation are challenging to discover, due to the effects of
when (a) the color of the letters
experience with meditation on the outcomes (Falcone & Jerram, 2018). However, EEG re-
matches the word being read (the
cordings during meditation typically feature increased proportions of alpha waves, which we
word red appears in a red font) than
described earlier as being characteristic of an awake but relaxed state. Recordings are slightly
when (b) it doesn’t match (the word
different depending on whether the participant is engaged in focused or mindfulness types of
red appears in a yellow or green
meditation (Travis, 2019).
font). Highly suggestible hypnotized
Studies using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) suggest that meditation
participants who were told that they
represents a voluntary regulation of attention and autonomic functions (Lazar et al., 2000).
were reading nonsense words instead
Brain imaging studies have discovered that experienced meditators showed less activity in
of real words did not show this typical
the brain’s DMN, which was described earlier in this chapter (Brewer et al., 2011). Activ-
difference. Their reaction time for
ity in the DMN is usually correlated not only with mind wandering and thinking about
naming the ink color was the same
the self but also with unhappiness. Relative inhibition of the activity of the DMN through
whether it matched the color name
meditation might be responsible for the feelings of bliss associated with this practice
or not.
(see ● Figure 6.23).
Meditation appears to result in physical changes in the brain (Fox et al., 2014). It has
been correlated with increased cortical thickness (Lazar et al., 2005), improved connectiv-
ity involving the anterior cingulate cortex (Posner, 2018), and increased gray matter in the
brainstem (Vestergaard-Poulsen et al., 2009). The increased cortical thickness was more
noticeable in older participants, suggesting that meditation might offset typical age-related
changes in the brain.

Other Methods for Altering Consciousness A variety of environmental

conditions initiate altered states of consciousness, including exposure to high altitudes
during mountain climbing, underwater conditions in scuba diving, starvation, sleep
deprivation, sensory deprivation, twirling, and rhythm-induced trance. These conditions
may lead to hallucination and other consistent changes in cognition and emotion,
possibly due to their ability to reduce activation in the prefrontal cortex (Dietrich &
Al-Shawaf, 2018).
Several of these environmental factors characterize vision quests, which typically take
place within religious contexts. In the traditional Native American vision quest, preparation
typically involved 3 to 4 days of starvation and sleep loss. The individual would travel to an
isolated location where no shelter could be built. The seeker would then be instructed to
concentrate and watch for the appearance of a “guardian.” This combination of events reliably
led seekers to experience the following phenomena: a distorted sense of time, a sensation of
“oneness,” the appearance of light, the emotion of ecstasy or bliss, and a sense of improved
insight (Steiger, 2000).
We have all observed young children experiment with their bodies by spinning. Al- meditation A voluntary alteration of
consciousness characterized by positive
though we do not know the precise reason for such spinning behavior, other than that it emotion and absence of thought.
is fun, spinning probably represents the child’s efforts to alter sensory and cognitive states.

HOW DO PEOPLE INTENTIONALLY ALTER THEIR STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS? 225

BOLD signal change (%)

0.14 0.14

–0.06 –0.06

–0.26 –0.26

–0.46 –0.46
(a) Meditators Controls (b) Meditators Controls

[Link]/DawnPoland
FIGURE 6.23
Meditation Is Correlated With Decreased Activation of the Brain’s Default Mode Network (DMN). Meditation is associated with a
decrease in activation in the prefrontal cortex and posterior cingulate gyrus, which are important parts of the DMN, of experienced meditators
compared to control participants who were introduced to the meditation methods right before being scanned. The amount of decrease in signal
strength is shown (a) in the prefrontal cortex and (b) in the posterior cingulate cortex. The colored bars represent three methods of mindfulness
meditation: choiceless awareness is shown in green, loving kindness is shown in red, and concentration is shown in blue.
Source: J. A. Brewer et al. (2011). Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 108(50), 20254–20259. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1112029108

Spinning is also used as a meditation-inducing method by the Sufis, a mystic Muslim sect.
Sufis may whirl for an hour or more before falling to the ground, where they seek a feeling
of oneness with the Earth.
It is likely that dancing has been a part of human cultures for thousands of years, both
for recreational and for religious purposes. Accompanied by the equally ancient practice of
drumming, dance is capable of initiating trancelike states in the participants (Vaitl et al., 2005).
A trance state typically refers to an induced state of consciousness in which a person is less

226 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

[Link]/ansonmiao
ming showed more theta
wave activity in their EEGs,
normally associated with
light N-REM sleep, than did
participants listening to un-
structured beat sequences (Winkelman, 2003).
Modern youth are fond of combining dance and psychoactive drugs to alter consciousness,
particularly in the context of raves, which are large parties featuring electronic music, darkness,
and the use of hallucinogens or MDMA (Redfield & Thouin-Savard, 2017). The raves feature some
themes common to the contexts we have described previously. Unity, or oneness, and positive emo-
tion are again primary goals reported by the participants.

Interpersonal Relationships
The Consciousness Perspective How Does Imitation Influence Liking?
WE ENGAGE IN A VARIETY OF UNCONSCIOUS BEHAVIORS, and not just when we’re
asleep. Among the unconscious behaviors that have been identified by psychologists is one
that is particularly relevant to relationships—the effect of mimicry on liking and feeling close
to others (Lakin et al., 2008). A substantial body of research supports the idea that we uncon-
sciously copy the behavior of others and that when we do copy another person’s behavior, that
person likes us better without necessarily knowing why.
Under what circumstances are we most likely to copy the behavior of other people? One
possible answer is that we mimic others to avoid or repair social exclusion. Jessica Lakin and
her colleagues (2008) made their participants feel socially excluded (temporarily) and then
observed that these excluded participants were more likely to mimic another person than were
participants who had not been socially excluded. This process extends to group
membership as well. Participants excluded by an in-group were subsequently
more likely to mimic an in-group member than an out-group member. These
results suggest that mimicry developed as an automatic behavior that we could
use to respond to threats to our social connectivity, which as we have stated
many times previously, could have been a matter of life or death to our hunter–
Jose Luis Pelaez/Iconica/Getty Images

gatherer ancestors.
Because this mimicry is quite automatic and unconscious, we are usually
not aware that we are behaving this way. Knowing now that this is an adap-
tive behavior, look more closely at how you behave when encountering situ-
ations in which you feel excluded. It could be a social situation, such as at a
party or an organizational event, where you are trying to mingle or initiate a
dialogue with others. Or perhaps you observe mimicry when you are around
someone you like romantically. Do you feign interest in things you wouldn’t
necessarily be interested in otherwise? Are you more apt to align yourself We often imitate the behavior of others without being
with the personality of the person you find interesting? Do you see this kind consciously aware that we’re doing so. Imitation seems
of behavior in friends or family? ■ to enhance liking and social inclusion.

HOW DO PEOPLE INTENTIONALLY ALTER THEIR STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS? 227

Sergii Sobolevskyi/[Link]
geography. In contrast, the COVID-19
pandemic is associated with widespread
and lasting changes in sleep habits (Morin & In addition to the normal worry
Carrier, 2020). In particular, lasting problems about health in a pandemic, sleep
with insomnia are likely outcomes of a can also be disrupted by stress
pandemic. Lin et al. (2020) reported a 37% related to juggling work and
increase in clinically significant insomnia family obligations and disruptions
between the pre-COVID and peak COVID to normal daily routines.
period in China.
Not only does the stress and anxiety Potentially even more harmful is the Policy responses to the problem of
related to the pandemic itself have the disruption to the daily routines that help us pandemic-induced insomnia might take the
ability to disrupt sleep, but many other maintain good circadian function. Working form of educating the public about good
factors are in play. Many people experience people typically are quite regular in the sleep hygiene, which is a benefit regardless
additional stress due to social isolation, times they rise, eat, leave for work, and of whether a pandemic is occurring. Simple
financial concerns, employment conditions, schedule social and leisure activities during rules such as keeping to a regular sleep
and the need to combine family and work the day. Without these habits, maintaining schedule, monitoring the use of caffeine and
obligations. These sources of stress might regularity in sleep-waking cycles might other stimulants, obtaining a daily dose of
rob people of the restorative actions of sleep be more difficult. Government limits on sunlight, limiting screen time right before
so desperately needed during a pandemic for outdoor activities might prevent people from sleep, and getting regular exercise can go a
maintaining a strong immune response and obtaining the daylight exposure they need long way toward preventing problems with
good general health. for good circadian function. sleep quantity and quality. ■

SUMMARY 6.3 Commonly Used Psychoactive Drugs and Their Methods

of Action
Drug class Acts on
LSD Serotonin

Marijuana Endogenous cannabinoids

Basal ganglia
(movement)

Prefontal cortex
(reasoning)

Hypothalamus
(appetite)

Hippocampus
(memory) Cerebellum
(movement)
Medulla
(nausea) Spinal cord
(pain)

Caffeine Adenosine
Brewed coffee —8 oz.*

Instant coffee —8 oz.*

Decaffeinated coffee —8 oz.*

Tea —8 oz.*

Cola—12 oz.*

Chocolate candy bar —1 oz.*

No-Doz ® —1 tablet

Anacin ® —1 tablet

Starbucks Chai Latte—16 oz.

Jolt Cola—12 oz.

Red Bull—8.3 oz.

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Caffeine (in milligrams)
*Amount of caffeine depends on type of product, brewing method, and formulation.

228 Chapter 6 THE AWARE MIND: ELEMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Blood nicotine concentration (ng/ml)

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 30 60 90 120 0 30 60 90 120
Time (in minutes) Time (in minutes)
Drug Peak Drug Peak
administered response administered response
(a) Smoking cigarettes (b) Chewing tobacco

(a) Cocaine, amphetamines, and methamphetamine Dopamine

(b)

Methylphenidate Dopamine
MDMA (Ecstasy) Serotonin, oxytocin

Alcohol GABA, dopamine

Opioids Endogenous endorphins
0.33 0.22
Rate of heroin use per 100,000 population

Release of
reformulated
0.27 OxyContin 0.18
Rate of OxyContin abuse
per 100,000 population

0.20 0.13

0.13 0.09

0.07
0.04

Heroin
OxyContin
0.00 0.00
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Credits: Top row—Laguna Design/Science Photo Library/Corbis; Third row—[Link]/Studiocasper; Fifth row—Courtesy of the Minnesota Department of Corrections. Sixth row—National Institute on Drug Abuse.

KEY TERMS The Language of Psychological Science

Be sure that you can define these terms and use them correctly.

addiction, p. 215 lucid dreaming, p. 208 self-awareness, p. 194

alpha wave, p. 202 major depressive disorder with sleep, p. 199
beta wave, p. 202 seasonal pattern, p. 201 sleep apnea, p. 209
biological clock, p. 199 meditation, p. 225 sleep terror, p. 209
circadian rhythm, p. 199 narcolepsy, p. 209 stimulant, p. 219
coma, p. 212 near-death experience, p. 213 sudden infant death syndrome
consciousness, p. 194 non–rapid eye movement (N-REM) (SIDS), p. 210
delta wave, p. 204 sleep, p. 203 theta wave, p. 203
dreaming, p. 208 psychoactive drug, p. 215 tolerance, p. 215
gamma wave, p. 202 rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, vegetative state (VS), p. 212
hallucinogen, p. 216 p. 203 waking, p. 199
hypnosis, p. 224 restless legs syndrome (RLS), p. 210 withdrawal, p. 215
insomnia, p. 209 seizure, p. 213

HOW DO PEOPLE INTENTIONALLY ALTER THEIR STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS? 229

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