ASME B31.

4-2022

Chapter II
Design

401 LOADS overpressure), including surge, are examples of transient

loads.
401.1 Load Classifications
401.2 Application of Loads
401.1.1 Classification of Loads. The design of a pipe-
line shall be based on consideration of the loads identified 401.2.1 Restrained Versus Unrestrained. The restraint
in this section to the extent that they are significant to the condition is a factor in the structural behavior of the pipe-
proposed system and applicable to the proposed installa- line and, consequently, affects stresses and applicable
tion and operation. Loads that may cause or contribute to stress limits. The degree of restraint may vary with pipe-
pipeline failure or loss of serviceability of the pipeline line construction activities, support conditions, soil prop-
system shall be identified and accounted for in the erties, terrain, and time. For purposes of design, this Code
design. For strength design, loads shall be classified as recognizes two restraint conditions, restrained and
one of the following: unrestrained. Guidance in categorizing the restraint
(a) sustained condition is given below. Examples given are neither
(b) occasional comprehensive nor definitive.
(c) construction (a) “Unrestrained” means that the pipe is free to
(d) transient displace laterally and to strain axially. Unrestrained pipe-
lines may include the following:
401.1.2 Sustained Loads. Sustained loads are those
(1) aboveground pipe that is configured to accom-
arising from the intended use of the pipeline system modate thermal expansion or support movement
and loads from other sources. The weight of the pipeline, (2) field bends and adjacent pipe buried in soft or
including components, fluids, and slurries, and loads due unconsolidated soil
to pressure are examples of sustained loads. Soil cover, (3) an unbackfilled section of buried pipeline that is
external hydrostatic pressure, and vibration due to equip- free to displace laterally or that contains a bend
ment are examples of sustained loads from other sources. (4) unanchored sections of pipe
Reaction forces at supports from sustained loads and (b) “Restrained” pipelines may include the following:
loads due to sustained displacement or rotations of (1) sections of buried pipe
supports are also sustained loads. (2) sections of aboveground pipe attached to closely
401.1.3 Occasional Loads. Examples of occasional spaced rigid supports, anchored at each end and at
loads are those resulting from wind, snow, ice, seismic, changes in direction
road and rail traffic, temperature change, currents, and (3) field bends and adjacent pipe buried in stiff or
waves except where they need to be considered as consolidated soil
sustained loads (loads caused by temperature change Portions of buried pipeline may be only partially
may also be considered sustained in some instances). restrained. Pipe-to-soil interactions should be evaluated
Loads resulting from prestressing, residual forces from to ensure that the soil provides adequate restraint to limit
installation, subsidence, differential settlement, frost the movement of the pipeline as may be required to
heave, and thaw settlement are included in occasional prevent unacceptable levels of stress and/or strain in
loads. the pipe and to prevent failure of the soil support, partic-
ularly at overbends and side bends. Guidance on the move-
401.1.4 Construction Loads. Loads necessary for the ment at pipe bends, soil interaction including soil-bearing
installation and pressure testing of the pipeline system are capacity, and soil springs used to represent soil forces on
construction loads. Examples of construction loads pipe may be found in the ASCE publication American Life-
include handling, storage, installation, and hydrotesting. lines Alliance “Guidelines for the Design of Buried Pipe-
401.1.5 Transient Loads. Loads that may occur during lines,“ July 2001 (with Addenda through 2005) and ASME
operation of the pipeline, such as fire, impact, falling B31.1, Nonmandatory Appendix VII.
objects, and transient conditions (during landslides,
third-party damage, equipment collisions, and accidental

11
 ASME B31.4-2022

401.2.2 Sustained Loads [Link] Ice Loads. The following effects shall be
considered when designing for ice loads:
[Link] General. In the case of constant loads, the
(a) ice frozen on pipelines and supporting structures
expected value of the load shall be used. In the case of
(b) drifting ice (river ice breakup or in inshore waters)
variable loads, the specified highest or lowest value
(c) impact forces due to thaw of the ice
shall be used, whichever is more critical. In the case of
(d) forces due to expansion of the ice
loads caused by deformation, the expected extreme
value shall be used. [Link] Road and Rail Traffic. Earth load and cyclic
rail and truck loads shall be considered. Maximum traffic
[Link] Internal Design Pressure. The pipe and
axle loads shall be established in consultation with the
components at any point in the pipeline shall be designed
appropriate traffic authorities and others operating in
for an internal design pressure that shall not be less than
the vicinity of the pipeline.
the maximum steady-state operating pressure at that
point, nor less than the static head pressure at that [Link] Vibration. Loads resulting from vibration
point with the pipeline in a static condition. The (including Karmon vortex effect) and resonance shall be
maximum steady-state operating pressure shall be the considered.
sum of the static head pressure, pressure required to over-
[Link] Waves and Currents. Loads resulting from ð22Þ
come friction losses, and applied back pressure. Credit
waves and currents shall be considered in the design of
may be taken for hydrostatic external pressure by modi-
pipelines across waterways. API RP 1133 may be used for
fying the internal design pressure for use in calculations
additional guidance.
involving the pressure design of pipe and components.
Pressure rise above maximum steady-state operating [Link] Temperature Effects. The design tempera-
pressure due to surges and other variations from ture is the metal temperature expected in normal opera-
normal operations is allowed in accordance with tion. It is not necessary to vary the design stress for metal
para. 403.3.4. temperatures between −20°F (−30°C) and 250°F (120°C).
However, some of the materials conforming to specifica-
[Link] External Hydrostatic Pressure. The pipe-
tions approved for use under this Code may not have prop-
line shall be designed to withstand the maximum expected
erties suitable for the lower portion of the temperature
differential between external and internal pressures.
band covered by this Code. Attention shall be given to the
[Link] Weight Effects. Weight effects combined low-temperature properties of the materials used for facil-
with loads and forces from other causes shall be consid- ities to be exposed to unusually low ground temperatures,
ered in the design of pipelines. The effect of the combined low atmospheric temperatures, or transient operating
weight of pipe, coating, and other attachments (in air and conditions.
submerged) on installation stresses and strains shall be The design temperature should be established consid-
considered. Variability due to weight coating manufac- ering temperature variations resulting from pressure
turing tolerances and water absorption shall also be changes and extreme ambient temperatures.
considered. Consideration should be given to possible conditions
that may cause low temperatures on pipelines trans-
[Link] Residual Loads. The pipeline system shall
porting liquids that become gases at or near atmospheric
normally be installed in a manner so as to minimize resi-
conditions. See ASME B31T for more information about
dual loads. An exception is when a designer purposefully
evaluating the suitability of piping materials that may be
plans for residual loads.
subject to brittle failure due to low-temperature service
[Link] Subsidence. Loads resulting from subsi- conditions.
dence shall be considered in design when pipelines or When piping is exposed to the sun, consideration should
pipeline segments are located in areas where subsidence be given to the metal temperature and fluid expansion
is known to occur. resulting from solar heat gain.

401.2.3 Occasional Loads 401.2.4 Construction Loads

[Link] Earthquakes. The following effects shall be [Link] Installation Loads. Loads induced during
considered when designing for earthquakes: transportation, handling, storage, and lowering-in shall be
(a) direct effects due to ground vibrations considered. Increases in external pressure during pres-
(b) induced effects (liquefaction, landslides) sure grouting or decreases in internal pressure during
(c) effects due to crossing of active faults at the surface vacuum drying shall be considered as installation loads.
[Link] Wind Loads. Wind loads shall be consid- [Link] Hydrostatic Testing. Loads that occur
ered in the design of above-grade pipelines. Refer to during hydrostatic testing shall be considered. These
ASCE 7 for the application of wind loads. loads include weight of contents, thermal, and pressured
end effect.

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 ASME B31.4-2022

401.3 Combining of Loads expansion of the line itself, the linear and angular move-
ments of the equipment to which it is attached shall be
When calculating equivalent stresses or strains, the considered.
most critical combination of sustained, occasional, Calculations of thermal forces and moments on anchors
construction, and transient loads that can be expected and equipment such as pumps, meters, and heat exchan-
to occur shall be considered. gers shall be based on the difference between installation
If the operating philosophy is to maintain full operation temperature and minimum or maximum anticipated oper-
during extreme environmental conditions, the system ating temperature, whichever results in a higher stress.
shall be designed for concurrent action of the expected Nominal dimensions of pipe and fittings shall be used in
sustained and occasional loads. flexibility calculations.
If the operating philosophy is such that operations will
be reduced or discontinued under extreme environmental 402.2 Properties
conditions, the following load combinations shall be
considered: 402.2.1 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion. The linear
(a) the design operating loads plus the environmental coefficient of thermal expansion for carbon and low alloy
loads at the permissible level high tensile steel may be taken as 6.5 × 10−6 in./in./°F for
(b) the reduced operating loads plus the maximum en- temperatures up to 250°F (11.7 × 10−6 mm/mm/°C for
vironmental loads temperatures up to 120°C).
Unless they can be reasonably expected to occur 402.2.2 Moduli of Elasticity. Flexibility calculations
together, it is not necessary to consider a combination shall be based on the modulus of elasticity at ambient
of transient loads in combination with occasional loads. temperature.
Effects of sustained loads caused by deformations shall
be taken into account only to the extent that the capacity to 402.2.3 Poisson’s Ratio, ν. Poisson’s ratio shall be
withstand other loads is affected. taken as 0.3 for steel.
When combining environmental loads with construc-
tion loads, the environmental loading should be selected 402.3 Stress From Internal Pressure
to reflect the most severe loading likely to be encountered For both restrained and unrestrained pipelines, the
during the construction phase. circumferential (hoop) stress due to internal pressure
When considering loads during tests, it is not necessary is calculated as
to consider occasional or transient loads as occurring
concurrently with the sustained and construction loads (U.S. Customary Units)
existing at the time of the test. PiD
SH =
2t
402 CALCULATION OF STRESSES
(SI Units)
ð22Þ 402.1 General PiD
SH =
Circumferential, longitudinal, shear, and equivalent 20t
stresses shall be considered, taking into account stresses where
from all relevant sustained, occasional, construction, and
D = outside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)
transient loads, including vibration, resonance, and subsi-
Pi = internal design gage pressure, psi (bar)
dence. The effects of all parts of the pipeline and all
SH = circumferential (hoop) stress due to internal
restraints, supports, guides, and sources of friction
pressure, psi (MPa)
shall be considered. When flexibility calculations are
t = wall thickness of pipe, in. (mm)
performed, linear and angular movements of equipment
to which the pipeline has been attached shall also be
The above equation may not be applicable for pipe D/t
considered.
less than 20.
Calculations shall take into account stress intensifica-
tion factors found to exist in components other than plain 402.4 Stress From External Pressure
straight pipe. Credit may be taken for extra flexibility of
such components. In the absence of more directly appli- For both restrained and unrestrained pipelines, the
cable data, the flexibility factors and stress intensification circumferential stress from external pressure, Pe, is calcu-
factors in ASME B31J may be used. lated as for internal pressure, substituting Pe for Pi. For
Calculations of pipe stresses in loops, bends, and offsets external pressure in the equation, compressive stress is
shall be based on the total range from minimum to negative.
maximum temperature normally expected, regardless Offshore pipe systems require additional considera-
of whether piping is cold sprung or not. In addition to tions. Refer to Chapter IX.

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 ASME B31.4-2022

402.5 Stress From Thermal Expansion 402.6 Longitudinal Stress

402.5.1 Restrained Pipe. Thermal expansion stress in 402.6.1 Restrained Pipe. Longitudinal stress in
restrained pipe is calculated as restrained pipe is calculated as
SE = E (T1 T2) M
SL = SE + vSH + + Fa/A
Z
where
E = moduli of elasticity where
SE = thermal expansion stress, psi (MPa) A = metal area of nominal pipe cross section, in.2
T1 = temperature of the pipe at installation or comple- (mm2)
tion of final tie-in, °F (°C) Fa = axial force, such as weight on a riser, lb (N)
T2 = operating temperature, °F (°C) M = bending moment, in.-lb (N·m)
α = coefficient of thermal expansion, in./in./°F SE = thermal expansion stress, psi (MPa)
(mm/mm/°C) SH = circumferential (hoop) stress due to internal
pressure, psi (MPa)
In the above equation, compressive stress is a negative Z = section modulus of the pipe, in.3 (cm3)
value. ν = Poisson’s ratio

402.5.2 Unrestrained Pipe. Calculations shall take into Examples of force, Fa, are forces due to the differential
account flexibility and stress intensification factors of pressure on a buried valve and frictional forces due to pipe
piping components. movement through the soil. Fa can be positive or negative,
The stress range resulting from thermal expansion in depending on the direction of the force.
pipe, fittings, and components in unrestrained pipeline is SH can be either a positive or negative value.
calculated as follows, using the modulus of elasticity at the Both positive and negative values of M/Z shall be
installed temperature: considered in the analysis.
SE = Residual stresses from construction are often present
Sb 2 + 4St 2
for spanning, elastic bends, and differential settlement.
where Designers should determine if such stresses need to be
Sb = resultant bending stress, psi (MPa) evaluated.
St = torsional stress, psi (MPa) 402.6.2 Unrestrained Pipe. The longitudinal stress ð22Þ
from pressure and external loadings in unrestrained
Thermal stress shall be calculated for the range of pipe is calculated as
minimum and maximum operating temperatures.
The resultant bending stress, Sb, is calculated as follows: (U.S. Customary Units)
S = (i M )2 + (i M )2 /Z SL =
PiD
+
iM F
+ a
b i i o o 4t Z A
where (SI Units)
ii = in-plane stress intensification factor in accor- PiD iM F
dance with para. 402.1. Note that ii is 1 for pipe. SL = + + a
40t Z A
io = out-of-plane stress intensification factor in
accordance with para. 402.1. Note that io is 1 where
for pipe. A = metal area of nominal pipe cross section, in.2
Mi = in-plane bending moment, in.-lb (N·m) (mm2)
Mo = out-of-plane bending moment, in.-lb (N·m) D = outside diameter of pipe, in. (mm)
Z = section modulus of the pipe or of the fitting outlet, Fa = axial force, such as weight on a riser, lb (N)
as applicable, in.3 (cm3) i = component stress intensification in plane of
loading in accordance with para. 402.1, limited
Resultant torsional stress, St, is calculated as by 0.75i ≥ 1. For straight pipe, i = 1.0.
M
S = t M = bending moment across the nominal pipe cross
t section due to weight or seismic inertia
2Z
loading, in.-lb (N·m)
where Pi = internal design gage pressure, psi (bar)
Mt = torsional moment, in.-lb (N·m) t = wall thickness of pipe, in. (mm)
Z = section modulus of the pipe or of the fitting outlet,
as applicable, in.3 (cm3)

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 ASME B31.4-2022

Longitudinal stress from pressure in an unrestrained However, the design shall provide reasonable protection
line shall include consideration of bending stress or to prevent damage to the pipeline from unusual external
axial stress that may be caused by elongation of the conditions that may be encountered in river crossings,
pipe due to internal pressure and result in stress at offshore and inland coastal water areas, bridges, areas
bends and at connections and produce additional loads of heavy traffic, long self-supported spans, unstable
on equipment and on supports. ground, vibration, weight of special attachments, or
forces resulting from abnormal thermal conditions.
402.7 Combining of Stresses Some of the protective measures that the design may
provide are encasing with steel pipe of larger diameter,
In restrained pipe, the longitudinal and circumferential
adding concrete protective coating, adding a concrete cap,
stresses are combined in accordance with the maximum
increasing the wall thickness, lowering the line to a greater
shear stress theory as follows:
depth, or indicating the presence of the line with addi-
Seq = 2 [(SL SH)/2]2 + St 2 tional markers.
In no case where the Code refers to the specified
where minimum value of a physical property shall a higher
Seq = equivalent combined stress value of the property be used in establishing the allowable
St = torsional stress, psi (MPa) stress value.
Pipelines within the scope of this Code may be subject to
When St can be disregarded, the combined stress calcu- conditions during construction and operation where the
lation can be reduced to the following: external pressure exceeds the internal pressure. The pipe
wall selected shall provide adequate strength to prevent
SL SH
collapse, taking into consideration mechanical properties,
such that when SL < 0, |SL| ≤ (Sx − SH), and when SL > 0, SL ≤ variations in wall thickness permitted by material speci-
(Sx + SH) fications, out-of-roundness, bending stresses, and
external loads.
where The forces and moments transmitted to connected
Sx = axial stress, psi (MPa) equipment, such as valves, strainers, tanks, pressure
vessels, and pumps, shall be kept within stress limits
Alternatively, the stresses may be combined in accor- specified herein and in other applicable codes.
dance with the maximum distortion energy theory as External or internal coatings or linings of cement, plas-
follows: tics, or other materials may be used on steel pipe
conforming to the requirements of this Code. These coat-
Seq = SH 2 SHSL + SL 2 + 3St 2 ings or linings shall not be considered to add strength
unless it can be demonstrated that they do so.
402.8 Stresses From Road and Rail Traffic Loads All in-line pipe and pipeline components shall be
designed to allow passage of instrumented internal
The total effective stress due to internal design pres- inspection devices.
sure, temperature change, and external loads (including
sustained, occasional, and transient loads) in pipe 403.2 Criteria for Pipe Wall Thickness and
installed under railroads or highways without use of Allowances
casings shall be calculated in accordance with API RP
1102 or other calculation methods. Cyclic stress compo- 403.2.1 Criteria. The nominal wall thickness of straight
nents shall be checked for fatigue. sections of steel pipe shall be equal to or greater than tn
Where casings are used, the same methodology may be determined in accordance with the following equation:
used for the design of the casing. tn t + A

403 CRITERIA FOR PIPELINES where

A = sum of allowances for threading, grooving, corro-
403.1 General sion, and erosion as required in paras. 403.2.2
through 403.2.4, and increase in wall thickness
Design and installation analyses shall be based on if used as protective measure in para. 403.1
accepted engineering methods, material strengths, and tn = nominal wall thickness satisfying requirements
applicable design conditions. for pressure and allowances
The design requirements of this Code are adequate for t = pressure design wall thickness as calculated in
public safety under conditions usually encountered in inches (millimeters) in accordance with the
piping systems within the scope of this Code, including following equations:
lines within villages, towns, cities, and industrial areas.

15
 ASME B31.4-2022

(U.S. Customary Units) 403.2.5 Use of High D/t Ratio. The designer is
PiD cautioned that susceptibility to flattening, ovality, buck-
t= ling, and denting increases with D/t ratio, decreased wall
2S

(SI Units) Table 403.2.1-1

PiD Weld Joint Factors Applicable to Common
t= Pipe Specifications
20S
Specification Grade Weld Joint Factor, E
where Seamless
D = outside diameter of pipe, in. (mm) API 5L A25 through X80Q/M 1.00
Pi = internal design gage pressure, psi (bar) ASTM A53 All 1.00
S = applicable allowable stress value, psi (MPa), as
ASTM A106 All 1.00
determined by the following equation:
ASTM A333 6 1.00
S = F × E × Sy
ASTM A524 All 1.00
Furnace Butt Welded, Continuous Welded
ASTM A53 Type F, Grade A 0.60
E = weld joint factor as specified in Table
403.2.1-1 API 5L A25 0.60
F = design factor. The value of F used in this Electric Resistance Welded and Electric Flash Welded
Code shall not be greater than 0.72. Where API 5L A25 through X80Q/M 1.00
indicated by service or location, users of ASTM A53 All 1.00
this Code may elect to use a design factor, ASTM A135 All 1.00
F, less than 0.72. In setting design factor, ASTM A333 6 1.00
due consideration has been given to and Electric Fusion Welded
allowance has been made for the under-
ASTM A134 All 0.80
thickness tolerance and maximum allow-
ASTM A139 All 0.80
able depth of imperfections provided for
ASTM A671 All 1.00 [Note (1)]
in the specifications approved by the
Code. ASTM A671 All 0.70 [Note (2)]
Sy = specified minimum yield strength of the ASTM A672 All 1.00 [Note (1)]
pipe, psi (MPa) ASTM A672 All 0.80 [Note (2)]
Submerged Arc Welded
403.2.2 Wall Thickness and Defect Tolerances. Wall API 5L A25 through X120M 1.00
thickness tolerances and defect tolerances for pipe shall [Note (3)]
be as specified in applicable pipe specifications or dimen- ASTM A381 Y35 through Y65 1.00
sional standards included in this Code by reference in GENERAL NOTES:
Mandatory Appendix I. Design factors in this Code (a) For some Code computations, particularly with regard to branch
were established with due consideration for underthick- connections [see para. 404.3.5(c)] and expansion, flexibility,
ness tolerance and maximum allowable depth of imper- structural attachments, supports, and restraints (see para.
fections allowed by the referenced standards; no 404.9), the weld joint factor, E, need not be considered.
(b) Definitions for the various types of pipe are given in para. 400.2.
additional allowance is necessary.
403.2.3 Corrosion. A wall thickness allowance for NOTES:
corrosion is not required if pipe and components are (1) Factor applies for Class X2 pipe only, when the radiographic ex-
protected against corrosion in accordance with the re- amination has been performed after postweld heat treatment
quirements and procedures prescribed in Chapter VIII. (PWHT).
(2) Factor applies for Class X3 pipe (no radiographic examination) or
403.2.4 Threading and Grooving. An allowance for for Class X2 pipe when the radiographic examination is
thread or groove depth in inches (millimeters) shall be performed prior to PWHT.
included in A of the equation in para. 403.2.1 when (3) For offshore applications, API 5L Annex J applies, which specifies
a maximum strength grade allowed up to X80MO.
threaded or grooved pipe is allowed by this Code (see
para. 404.8.3).
Least nominal wall thickness for threaded pipe shall be
standard wall (see ASME B36.10M).

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 ASME B31.4-2022

Table 403.3.1-1
Allowable Values for Pipeline System Stresses
Sum of Effective Stress
Internal and Longitudinal Equivalent for Casing or
External Allowable Additive Stresses From Combined Uncased Pipe at
Pressure Expansion Longitudinal Sustained and Stress, Road or Railroad
Location Stress, SH Stress, SE Stress, SL Occasional Loads Seq Crossings
Restrained pipeline 0.72(E)Sy 0.90Sy 0.90Sy [Note (1)] 0.90Sy 0.90Sy 0.90Sy [Note (2)]
Unrestrained pipeline 0.72(E)Sy SA [Note (3)] 0.75Sy [Note (1)] 0.80Sy n/a 0.90Sy [Note (2)]
Riser and platform piping on 0.60(E)Sy 0.80Sy 0.80Sy 0.90Sy n/a n/a
inland navigable waters
GENERAL NOTES:
(a) Sy = specified minimum yield strength of pipe material, psi (MPa)
(b) E = weld joint factor (see Table 403.2.1-1)
(c) In the setting of design factors, due consideration has been given to and allowance has been made for the underthickness tolerance and
maximum allowable depth of imperfections provided for in the specifications approved by the Code.
(d) SL in the table above is the maximum allowable value for unrestrained piping calculated in accordance with para. 402.6.2. The maximum value
of SL for restrained pipe is calculated in accordance with para. 402.6.1.
(e) See para. 403.10 for allowable stresses of used pipe.
NOTES:
(1) Beam-bending stresses shall be included in the longitudinal stress for those portions of the restrained or unrestrained line that are supported
aboveground.
(2) Effective stress is the sum of the stress caused by temperature change and from circumferential, longitudinal, and radial stresses from internal
design pressure and external loads in pipe installed under railroads or highways.
(3) See para. 403.3.2.

thickness, decreased yield strength, and combinations where

thereof. Pipe having a D/t ratio greater than 100 may f = fatigue factor calculated as f = 6.0N−0.2, where f
require additional protective measures during construc- cannot exceed 1.2 for ferrous materials with
tion. See para. 403.2.2 and the General Note under Table specified minimum tensile strength ≤ 75,000
A402.3.2-1 for wall thickness allowances included in the psi (517 MPa), or 1.0 for all other materials
design factors. N = equivalent number of full displacement cycles
during the expected service life of the pipeline
403.3 Criteria to Prevent Yield Failure system
ð22Þ 403.3.1 Strength Criteria. The maximum longitudinal Sc = lesser of 1∕3Su or 2∕3Sy at the lower of the installed
stress due to axial and bending loads during installation or minimum operating temperature
and operation shall be limited to a value that prevents pipe = 20,000 psi (138 MPa) maximum
Sh = lesser of 1∕3Su or 2∕3Sy at the higher of the installed
buckling or otherwise impairs the serviceability of the
installed pipeline. Other stresses resulting from pipeline or maximum operating temperature
= 20,000 psi (138 MPa) maximum
installation activities such as spans shall be limited to the
same criteria. Instead of a stress criterion, an allowable Su = specified minimum tensile strength, psi (MPa)
installation strain limit may be used. Sy = specified minimum yield strength, psi (MPa)
Stress values for steel pipe during operation shall not
exceed the allowable values in Table 403.3.1-1 as calcu- 403.3.3 Strain Criteria for Pipelines. When a pipeline
lated by the equations in this Chapter. may experience a noncyclic displacement of its support
Slurry and process water pipe systems require addi- (such as fault movement along the pipeline route or differ-
tional considerations. Refer to Chapter XI. ential support settlement or subsidence along the pipe-
line), the longitudinal and combined stress limits may
ð22Þ 403.3.2 Criteria for Allowable Stress Due to Periodic be replaced with an allowable strain limit, so long as
or Cyclic Loading. For unrestrained pipelines, the allow- the consequences of yielding do not impair the service-
able expansion stress, SA, is as follows: ability of the installed pipeline. The permissible
SA f [1.25(Sc + Sh) SL] maximum longitudinal strain depends on the ductility
of the material, any previously experienced plastic
strain, and the buckling behavior of the pipe. Where
plastic strains are anticipated, the pipe eccentricity,
pipe out-of-roundness, and the ability of the weld to

17
 ASME B31.4-2022

undergo such strains without detrimental effect shall be 403.6.2 Strength Criteria During Operations
considered. Maximum strain shall be limited to 2%.
[Link] General. Pipeline design for lateral and
403.3.4 Criteria for Transient Overpressure. Tran- vertical on-bottom stability is governed by permanent
sient overpressure includes pressure rise due to surge. features such as topography and soil characteristics
Surge pressures in a liquid pipeline are produced by a and by transient events such as hydrodynamic, seismic,
change in the velocity of the moving fluid that results and soil behavior events that are likely to occur during
from shutting down a pump station or pumping unit, the anticipated service life. Design conditions to be consid-
closing a valve, or blockage of the moving fluid. ered are provided in paras. [Link] through [Link].
Surge calculations should be made and adequate The pipeline shall be designed to prevent horizontal and
controls and protective equipment shall be provided so vertical movements or shall be designed so that any move-
that the pressure rise due to surges and other variations ments will be limited to values not causing allowable
from normal operations shall not exceed the internal stresses and strains to be exceeded.
design pressure at any point in the piping system and (a) Typical factors to be considered in the stability
equipment by more than 10%. design include
(1) flood plains and marshes and other locations
403.4 Criteria to Prevent Buckling and Excessive subject to immersed conditions
Ovality (2) current forces
(3) soil properties
The pipeline system shall be designed and installed in a
(4) scour and resultant spanning
manner to prevent local buckling or excessive ovality of
(5) soil liquefaction
the pipe, collapse, and column buckling during installation
(6) slope failure
and operations. Design, installation, and operating proce-
(b) Stability may be obtained by such means as, but not
dures shall consider the effect of external pressure;
limited to
bending, axial, and torsional loads; impact; mill tolerances
(1) adjusting pipe submerged weight
in the wall thickness; out-of-roundness; and other appli-
(2) trenching and/or covering of pipe
cable factors. Consideration shall also be given to mitiga-
(3) anchoring
tion of propagation buckling that may follow local
(4) clamp-on or set-on weights
buckling or denting. The pipe wall thickness shall be
Installation and operational on-bottom stability design
selected to resist collapse due to external pressure.
conditions shall be considered.
403.5 Criteria to Prevent Fatigue [Link] Design Current Conditions. Operational
The pipeline shall be designed, installed, and operated design current conditions shall be based on an event
to limit stress fluctuations to magnitudes and frequencies having a minimum return interval of not less than 100 yr.
that will not impair the serviceability of the pipeline. Loads [Link] Stabili ty Against Currents. The
that may cause fatigue include internal pressure varia- submerged weight of the pipe shall be designed to
tions, currents, and vibrations induced by vortex shed- resist or limit movement to amounts that do not cause
ding. Pipeline spans shall be designed to prevent the longitudinal and combined stresses to exceed the
vortex-induced resonant vibrations when practical. limits specified in Table 403.3.1-1. The submerged
When vibrations must be tolerated, the resulting stresses weight may be adjusted by weight coating and/or
due to vibration shall be included in allowable stresses increasing pipe wall thickness.
listed in para. 403.3.1. If alternative acceptance standards Current direction shall be considered.
for girth welds in API 1104 are used, the cyclic stress The pipeline and its appurtenances may be buried to
analysis shall include the determination of a predicted enhance stability.
fatigue spectrum to which the pipeline is exposed over Backfill or other protective covering options shall use
its design life. See Chapter 2 of ASME B31.3 for guidance. materials and procedures that minimize damage to the
pipeline and coatings.
403.6 Criteria to Prevent Loss of In-Place Stability Anchoring may be used alone or in conjunction with
403.6.1 Strength Criteria During Installation and other options to maintain stability. The anchors shall
Testing. Design against loss of in-place stability shall be designed to withstand lateral and vertical loads
be in accordance with the provisions of para. 403.6.2, expected from the design wave and current conditions.
except that the installation design current conditions Anchors shall be spaced to prevent excessive stresses
shall be based on the provisions of para. 401.3. If the pipe- in the pipe. Scour shall be considered in the design of
line is to be trenched, it shall be designed for stability the anchoring system. The effect of anchors on the
during the period prior to trenching. cathodic protection system shall be considered.

18
 ASME B31.4-2022

Intermittent block type, clamp-on, or set-on weights shall consider the need to prevent fractures during instal-
(river weights) shall not be used on pipelines where lation and operation. See para. 434.8.5.
there is a potential for the weight to become unsupported
403.7.2 Design Considerations. The probability of
because of scour.
brittle and ductile propagating fractures shall be consid-
ð22Þ [Link] Shore Approaches. Pipe in the shore ered in the design of pipelines transporting liquids that
approach zone shall be installed on a suitable above- become gases at or near atmospheric conditions. Protec-
water structure or buried or bored to the depth necessary tion shall be provided to limit the occurrence and the
to prevent scouring, spanning, or stability problems that length of fractures throughout the pipeline with special
may affect integrity and safe operation of the pipeline consideration at industrial areas, residential areas,
during its anticipated service life. Seasonal variation in commercial areas, river crossings, road and railroad cross-
the near-shore thickness of seafloor sediments and shore- ings, and other appropriate areas.
line erosion over the pipeline service life shall be consid-
403.7.3 Brittle Fractures. Brittle fracture propagation
ered. API RP 1133 may be used for additional guidance.
shall be prevented by selection of a pipe steel that frac-
[Link] Slope Failure and Soil Liquefaction. Slope tures in a ductile manner at operating temperatures.
failure shall be considered in zones where it is expected
403.7.4 Ductile Fractures. Ductile fracture propaga-
(mudslides, steep slopes, areas of seismic slumping). If it is
tion shall be minimized by the selection of a pipe steel
not practical to design the pipeline system to survive the
with appropriate fracture toughness and/or by the instal-
event, the pipeline shall be designed for controlled break-
lation of suitable fracture arrestors. See ASME B31T for
away with provisions to minimize loss of the pipeline
more information about determining appropriate tough-
contents.
ness of pipe steel. Design consideration shall include pipe
Design for the effects of liquefaction shall be performed
diameter, wall thickness, fracture toughness, yield
for areas of known or expected occurrence. Soil liquefac-
strength, operating pressure, operating temperature,
tion normally results from cyclic wave overpressures or
and the decompression characteristics of the pipeline
seismic loading of susceptible soils. The bulk specific
contents.
gravity of the pipeline shall be selected, or alternative
methods shall be selected to ensure both horizontal 403.8 Criteria for Crossings
and vertical stability.
Seismic design conditions used to predict the occur- 403.8.1 General. Crossing of water, railroads, roads,
rence of bottom liquefaction or slope failure shall be at foreign pipelines, and utilities requires variations in
least as severe as those used for the operating design basic pipeline design. The location of buried pipelines,
strength calculations for the pipeline. Occurrence of utility lines, and other underground structures along
soil liquefaction due to hydrostatic overpressures shall and crossing the proposed right of way shall be deter-
be based on a minimum storm return interval of not mined and considered in the design.
less than 100 yr. 403.8.2 Trenched Water Crossings. Design of cross- ð22Þ
[Link] Earthquake-Prone Areas. When a pipeline ings of rivers, streams, lakes, and inland bodies of
is to be laid across a known fault zone or in an earthquake- water shall include investigation of the composition of
prone area, consideration shall be given to the need for bottom and underlying layers, variation in banks, velocity
flexibility in the pipeline and its components to minimize of water, scouring, and special seasonal conditions.
the possibility of damage due to an earthquake. Flexibility Where required, detailed plans and specifications shall
in the pipeline may be provided by installation of the pipe- be prepared, taking into account these and any special
line on or above the ground level or by use of breakaway considerations or limitations imposed by the regulatory
coupling, slack loops, flexible pipe sections, or other site- bodies involved. Plans and specifications shall describe
specific solutions. Breakaway couplings shall be designed the position of the line showing the depth below mean
to prevent loss of the transported fluid in the event of a low water level when applicable.
separation of the coupling. Thicker wall pipe may be specified. Approach and posi-
tion of the line in the banks is important, as is the position
[Link] Pipe–Soil Interaction. The pipe–soil inter-
of the line across the bottom. Special considerations shall
action factors that are used shall be representative of the be given to depth of cover and other means of protecting
soil conditions at the site and pipe coating.
the pipeline in the shore and bank crossings.
Special consideration shall be given to protective coat-
403.7 Criteria to Prevent Fracture
ings and the use of weight coating, river weights, and
403.7.1 General. Prevention of fractures during instal- anchors. API RP 1133 may be used for additional guidance.
lation and operation shall be considered in material selec-
tion in accordance with the requirements of section 423.
Welding procedures and weld defect acceptance criteria

19
 ASME B31.4-2022

403.8.3 Directionally Drilled Crossings. Specific 403.8.5 Crossings Attached to Bridges. In addition to
consideration shall be given to stresses and dynamic structural support concerns, the differential movement
loads associated with the installation of directionally between the bridge and pipeline due to thermal stresses
drilled crossings, including axial loading, yielding, buck- and external loads shall be considered in the design of the
ling, bending, and other dynamic loads or a combination of pipeline crossing. In addition to the design considerations
these loads. Calculated stresses in the pipe and attach- listed in para. 403.8.4, consideration shall be given to
ments shall not exceed the allowable limits identified special requirements to prevent damage to the pipeline
in Table 403.3.1-1, including residual bending stresses. from vehicles, deicing chemicals, bridge components, and
Designs shall include selection of the location of entry other site-specific hazards.
and exit points of the proposed installation, clearances at
403.8.6 Railroad and Highway Crossings. Stresses
points of crossing of other underground facilities, and
due to internal design pressure and external load in
spacing between the directionally drilled crossing and
pipe installed under railroads or highways without use
parallel underground pipelines, utilities, and cables.
of casing shall not exceed the allowable stresses specified
In finalizing the proposed pipeline routing, each
in Table 403.3.1-1. Installation of uncased carrier pipe is
operator shall
preferred. Installation of carrier, or casing if used, may be
(a) conduct a site survey to identify pipelines, utilities,
in accordance with API RP 1102 or other appropriate stan-
cables, and other nearby subsurface structures that may
dard. If casing is used, coated carrier pipe shall be inde-
potentially be affected by the drilling and installation
pendently supported outside each end of the casing and
operations
insulated from the casing throughout the cased section,
(b) contact and communicate with other facility
and casing ends shall be sealed using a durable, electrically
owners identified in (a)
nonconductive material.
(c) physically locate and mark all nearby or parallel
pipelines, utilities, cables, and other underground struc- 403.8.7 Crossings of Pipelines and Utilities. Pipeline
tures within 100 ft (30 m) of the drilling operation crossings should be designed to provide a minimum 12-in.
(d) analyze the accuracy of the method specified for (300-mm) separation between the pipeline and other
tracking the position of the pilot string during drilling, pipelines and utilities, unless other measures of protection
including the effect on the tracking system of parallel are provided. Soil settlement, scour, and cyclical loads
power or communication lines (above- or belowground) shall be considered in the design of pipeline crossings
and cathodic protection systems operating in the vicinity to ensure that the separation is maintained for the
(e) conduct soil borings and geotechnical evaluations if design life of both lines. Consideration shall be given
subsurface conditions are unknown to the support of other pipelines and utilities during
and following construction.
403.8.4 Overhead Crossings. Overhead suspended
bridges or other overhead structures used to suspend 403.9 Criteria for Expansion and Flexibility
pipelines shall be designed and constructed within the
restrictions or regulations of the regulatory body 403.9.1 Unrestrained Pipelines. Pipelines shall be
having jurisdiction. Suspension bridges, prefabricated designed to have sufficient flexibility to prevent expansion
steel bridges, reinforced concrete bridges, and self-span- or contraction from causing stresses in the pipe material
ning pipe bridges may be used. Stresses produced by the or pipeline components that exceed the allowables speci-
pipe weight, environmental loads, and other predictable fied herein, including joints, connections, anchor points, or
loads shall not exceed the maximum stresses allowed by guide points.
this Code. Detailed plans and specifications shall be NOTE: Allowable forces and moments on equipment may be less
prepared where required. than for the connected pipe.
Design of overhead crossings using a dedicated bridge
Analysis of adequate flexibility of unrestrained pipe is
with self-supporting spans that are specially designed for
not required for a pipeline that
the pipeline crossing shall consider the following:
(a) has been previously analyzed
(a) pipe and content weight
(b) is of uniform size, has no more than two anchor
(b) external loads such as wind, snow, and ice
points and no intermediate restraints, and falls within
(c) flooding
(d) thermal stresses the limitations of the following empirical formula:
(e) electrical isolation of pipeline from supporting steel Dy/(L U )2 K
structure to prevent interference with pipeline cathodic
protection where
(f) atmospheric corrosion control D = outside diameter of the pipe, in. (mm)
K = 0.03 for U.S. customary units listed above
= 208 for SI units listed above

20
 ASME B31.4-2022

L = developed length of the pipe between anchors, 403.11 Criteria for Cold Worked Pipe
ft (m)
The allowable stress for pipe that has been cold worked
U = straight line distance between anchors, ft (m)
y = resultant of total displacement strains, in. (mm), to to meet the specified minimum yield strength and is subse-
be absorbed by the pipe (UαΔT) quently heated to 600°F (300°C) or higher (welding
excepted) shall be derated to 75% of the allowable
stress value as defined in para. 403.2.1.
Any pipeline not meeting the requirements given above
shall be analyzed by a simplified, approximate, or compre-
403.12 Criteria for Shear and Bearing Stresses
hensive method as appropriate. The effects of all parts of
the pipeline and components and of all restraints, Allowable stress values in shear shall not exceed 45% of
including friction, shall be accounted for. the specified minimum yield strength of the pipe, and
allowable stress values in bearing shall not exceed
403.9.2 Restrained Buried Pipelines. Buried pipelines
90% of the specified minimum yield strength of the pipe.
are considered restrained. Stress calculations are neces-
sary for buried pipelines whenever significant tempera- 403.13 Criteria for Structural Supports and
ture changes are expected or the pipeline deviates from a Restraints
straight line. Safe operation of a buried pipeline is predi-
cated on the assumption that the pipeline is maintained in Allowable tensile and compressive stress values for
its position in the ground through support of the soil below materials used in structural supports and restraints
and on the sides. The pipeline must also be provided with shall not exceed 66% of the specified minimum yield
proper soil cover to prohibit it from rising out of the strength. Allowable stress values in shear and bearing
ground at over bends. The buoyancy effects on a shall not exceed 45% and 90% of the specified
submerged pipeline shall be considered in its stability. minimum yield strength, respectively. Steel materials
At the ends of a buried pipeline, thermal and pressure of unknown specifications may be used for structural
forces may cause significant longitudinal movement of supports and restraints, provided a yield strength of
the pipe, as the soil is normally unable to provide the 24,000 psi (165 MPa) or less is used.
restraint to prevent movement. The length of the pipeline
subject to axial movement may be several hundred feet, 404 CRITERIA FOR FITTINGS, ASSEMBLIES, AND
and the end of the pipeline should be either anchored to OTHER COMPONENTS (ALTERNATIVELY,
prevent movement or designed to accommodate move- CRITERIA FOR COMPONENTS)
ment at the end of the pipeline.
Buried sections of pipe that are not fully restrained, such 404.1 General Criteria for Piping Components
as in a pump station, will move through the soil and should
be analyzed for overstressing by reaction with the soil. 404.1.1 Steel Butt Welding Fittings. When steel butt
Guidance regarding soil–pipe interaction can be found welding fittings (see paras. 404.2.5 and 404.3.2) are used,
in ASCE American Lifelines Alliance “Guidelines for the they shall comply with ASME B16.9, ASME B16.28, or MSS
Design of Buried Pipelines,” July 2001 (with addenda SP-75.
through February 2005) and ASME B31.1, Nonmandatory 404.1.2 Components Having Specific Pressure–
Appendix VII. Temperature Ratings. Within the metal temperature
403.9.3 Restr ained Abovegroun d Pi peline s. limits of −20°F (−30°C) to 250°F (120°C), pressure
Restrained aboveground pipelines should be anchored ratings for components shall conform to those stated
so that longitudinal expansion or contraction due to for 100°F (40°C) in material standards and specifications
thermal and pressure changes is absorbed by direct listed in Table 423.1-1. The nonmetallic trim, packing,
axial compression or tension. Consideration shall also seals, and gaskets shall be made of materials that are
be given to beam bending stress and the possible not injuriously affected by the fluid in the piping
elastic instability of the pipe and its supports due to lon- system and shall be capable of withstanding the pressures
gitudinal compressive forces. The supports shall be and temperatures to which they will be subjected in
designed to provide the stiffness necessary to prevent service. Consideration shall be given to possible condi-
lateral buckling. tions that may cause low temperatures on pipelines trans-
porting liquids that become gases at or near atmospheric
403.10 Criteria for Used Pipe conditions.

Used pipe of k now n s p e c if i c a t i o n l ist e d in 404.1.3 Ratings — Components Not Having Specific
Table 403.2.1-1 may be used in accordance with the Pressure–Temperature Ratings. Piping components not
design equations in section 402 of this Code, subject to having established pressure ratings may be qualified for
the criteria in this section, and the testing requirements use as specified in paras. 404.10 and 423.1(b).
of paras. 437.4.1, 437.6.1, 437.6.3, and 437.6.4.

21
 ASME B31.4-2022

404.1.4 Pressure Criteria. The piping component at 404.2 Directional Changes

any point in the pipeline system shall be designed for
404.2.1 General. Changes in direction, vertically and
an internal design pressure that shall not be less than
the maximum steady-state operating pressure at that horizontally, may be made by field bending the pipe,
by inserting induction bends (also called hot bends), or
point, or less than the static head pressure at that
by installing manufactured bends or elbows.
point with the line in a static condition. The maximum
The minimum wall thickness of pipe before bending,
steady-state operating pressure shall be the sum of the
static head pressure, pressure required to overcome fric- field bends, or induction bends shall be determined as
tion losses, and any required back pressure. Credit may be for straight pipe in accordance with para. 403.2.1.
given for hydrostatic external pressure, in the appropriate 404.2.2 Field Bends. Field bends are cold bends,
manner, in modifying the internal design pressure for use generally made in the field during construction, to
in calculations involving the pressure design of piping allow the pipe to conform to the contour of the ditch.
components. Pressure rise above maximum steady- Field bends include vertical bends (sags and overbends),
state operating pressure due to surges and other varia- horizontal bends to accommodate changes in direction,
tions from normal operations is allowed in accordance and combination bends.
with para. 404.1.5. Bends shall be free from buckling, cracks, or other
Provision shall be made in the design either to with- evidence of mechanical damage. Ripples or wrinkles
stand or to relieve increased pressure caused by the meeting the requirements of para. [Link] are accept-
heating of static fluid in a piping component. able.
The piping component shall be designed to withstand Field bends shall meet the r e qu ir e me nt s of
the maximum possible differential between external and para. 434.7.1.
internal pressures to which the component will be The minimum radius of field cold bends, except as noted
exposed. in the next two paragraphs, shall be as follows:
404.1.5 Overpressure Criteria. The pressure rise due Minimum Radius of
to surges (see para. 403.3.4) and other variations from Nominal Pipe Size Bend in Pipe Diameters
normal operations shall not exceed the internal design NPS 12 and smaller 18D
pressure at any point in the piping system and equipment 14 21
by more than 10%.
16 24
404.1.6 Ratings — Considerations for Different Pres- 18 27
sure Conditions. When two lines that operate at different NPS 20 and larger 30
pressure conditions are connected, the valve segregating
the two lines shall be rated for the more severe service In some cases, thin wall pipe will require the use of an
condition. When a line is connected to a piece of equip- internal mandrel when being bent to the minimum radii
ment that operates at a higher pressure condition than tabulated above.
that of the line, the valve segregating the line from the Bends may be made by bending the pipe in sizes NPS 14
equipment shall be rated for at least the operating condi- and larger to a minimum radius of 18D. However, bending
tion of the equipment. The piping between the more pipe to radii approaching 18D shall comply with the
severe conditions and the valve shall be designed to with- criteria in this paragraph and will be dependent on
stand the operating conditions of the equipment or piping wall thickness, ductility, ratio of pipe diameter to wall
to which it is connected. thickness, use of bending mandrel, and skill of bending
404.1.7 Fittings Exceeding Scope of Standard Sizes. crew. Test bends shall be made to determine that the
Fittings exceeding scope of standard sizes or otherwise field bending procedure used produces bends meeting
departing from dimensions listed in the standards the requirements of this paragraph and that the wall thick-
referred to in paras. 404.1.1 and 404.4.1 may be used, ness after bending is not less than the minimum permitted
provided the designs meet the requirements of this Code. by the pipe specification.
Cold bends should have tangents on each end in accor-
404.1.8 Special Fittings and Connections. Cast, dance with para. 434.7.1(d).
forged, wrought, or welded steel fittings different from
those specified in the applicable American National Stan- 404.2.3 Induction Bends. Induction bends are made by
dards and MSS Standard Practices will be permitted, heating the pipe and forming the bend under controlled
provided that their design is in accordance with conditions. The minimum wall thickness of pipe before
para. 404.10. bending shall be determined as for straight pipe in accor-
dance with para. 403.2.1. Induction bends shall comply
404.1.9 Thermowells. Thermowells shall comply with with ASME B16.49.
ASME PTC 19.3 TW.

22
 ASME B31.4-2022

Bends shall be free from buckling, cracks, or other 404.2.6 Wrinkle Bends. Wrinkle bends shall not be
evidence of mechanical damage. Ripples or wrinkles used.
meeting the requirements of para. [Link] are accept-
able. 404.3 Branch Connections
The pipe diameter shall not be reduced at any point by 404.3.1 General. Branch connections may be made by
more than 21∕2% of the nominal diameter, and the means of tees, crosses, integrally reinforced extruded
completed bend shall pass the specified sizing pig. outlet headers, or welded connections, and shall be
When hot bends are made in pipe that has been cold designed in accordance with the requirements of this
worked to meet the specified minimum yield strength, paragraph.
wall thickness shall be determined by using the lower
stress values in accordance with para. 403.11. 404.3.2 Tees and Crosses. Steel butt welding tees and
crosses may be used for all ratios of branch diameter to
404.2.4 Mitered Bends. In systems intended to operate
header diameter and all ratios of design hoop stress to
at a hoop stress of more than 20% of the specified specified minimum yield strength of the adjoining
minimum yield strength of the pipe, miter bends are header and branch pipe, provided they comply with
prohibited. Miter bends not exceeding 121∕2 deg may ASME B16.9, ASME B16.28, or MSS SP-75. Pressure
be used in systems operated at a hoop stress of 20% and temperature ratings shall be based on the same
or less of the specified minimum yield strength of the stress values as were used in establishing the pressure
pipe, and the minimum distance between miters and temperature limitations for pipe of the same or
measured at the crotch shall not be less than one pipe equivalent material.
diameter. When the system is to be operated at a hoop The minimum metal thickness of flanged or threaded
stress of less than 10% of the specified minimum yield tees and crosses shall not be less than specified for the
strength of the pipe, the restriction to 12 1 ∕ 2 deg pressures and temperatures in the applicable ASME Stan-
maximum miter and distance between miters will not
dard or the MSS Standard Practice.
apply. Deflections caused by misalignment up to 3 deg
are not considered miter bends. 404.3.3 Integrally Reinforced Extruded Outlet
Care shall be taken in making mitered joints to provide Headers
proper spacing and alignment and full-penetration welds.
[Link] Definition. An extruded outlet header is
404.2.5 Factory-Made Bends and Elbows. The defined as a header in which the extruded lip at the
minimum metal thickness of flanged or threaded outlet has a height above the surface of the header
elbows shall not be less than specified for the pressures that is equal to or greater than the radius of curvature
and temperatures in the applicable ASME Standard or the of the external contoured portion of the outlet, i.e., ho
MSS Standard Practice. ≥ ro. See Figure [Link]-1.
Steel butt welding elbows shall comply with ASME These rules do not apply to any nozzle in which addi-
B16.9, ASME B16.28, or MSS SP-75, and shall have pres- tional nonintegral material is applied in the form of rings,
sure and temperature ratings based on the same stress pads, or saddles.
values as were used in establishing the pressure and These rules apply only to cases where the axis of the
temperature limitations for pipe of the same or equivalent outlet intersects and is perpendicular to the axis of the
materials. header.
Factory-made bends and elbows shall have approxi-
mately the same mechanical properties and chemical [Link] Notation. The notation used herein is illus-
composition as the pipe to which they are welded. trated in Figure [Link]-1. All dimensions are in inches
Transverse segments cut from factory-made wrought (millimeters).
steel welding bends and factory-made elbows may be D = outside diameter of header
used for changes in direction, provided the arc distance d = outside diameter of branch pipe
measured along the crotch is at least 2 in. (50 mm) on pipe Dc = internal diameter of header
size NPS 4 and larger. dc = internal diameter of branch pipe
If the internal diameter of factory-made bends and Do = internal diameter of extruded outlet measured at
elbows differs by more than 3∕16 in. (5 mm) from that the level of the outside surface of header
of the pipe, the fitting shall be treated as indicated in ho = height of the extruded lip. This must be equal to or
Figure 434.8.6-2 or use a transition nipple not less greater than ro, except as shown in ro below.
than one-half pipe diameter in length with acceptable L = height of the reinforcement zone
= 0.7
joint designs as illustrated in Figure 434.8.6-2. dTo
If factory-made elbows are used in cross-country lines,
care shall be taken to allow for passage of in-line inspec-
tion tools.

23
 ASME B31.4-2022

Figure [Link]-1
Reinforced Extruded Outlets

NOTE: (1) Taper bore inside diameter (if required) to match branch pipe 1:3 maximum taper.

24
 ASME B31.4-2022

ro = radius of curvature of external contoured portion [Link] Reinforcement Area. The reinforcement
of outlet measured in the plane containing the area shall be the sum of areas A1 + A2 + A3 as defined below.
axes of the header and branch. This is subject (a) Area A1. The area lying within the reinforcement
to the following limitations: zone resulting from any excess thickness available in
(a) Minimum radius shall be not less than the header wall, i.e.,
0.05d, except that on branch diameters larger A1 = Do(Th th)
than NPS 30 it need not exceed 1.50 in. (38 mm).
(b) Maximum radius for outlet pipe sizes (b) Area A2. The area lying within the reinforcement
NPS 8 and larger shall not exceed 0.10d + 0.50 zone resulting from any excess thickness available in
in. (13 mm). For outlet pipe sizes less than the branch pipe wall, i.e.,
NPS 8, this dimension shall not be greater
A2 = 2L(Tb tb)
than 1.25 in. (32 mm).
(c) When the external contour contains more
(c) Area A3. The area lying within the reinforcement
than one radius, the radius of any arc sector of
zone resulting from excess thickness available in the
approximately 45 deg shall meet the require-
extruded outlet lip, i.e.,
ments for minimum and maximum radius above.
(d) Machining shall not be employed to meet A3 = 2ro(To Tb)
the above requirements.
r1 = half-width of reinforcement zone (equal to Do) [Link] Reinforcement of Multiple Openings. The
Tb = actual nominal wall thickness of branch requirements outlined in para. 404.3.6 shall be followed,
tb = required thickness of the branch pipe according except that the required area and reinforcement area shall
to the wall thickness equation in para. 403.2.1 be as given in paras. [Link] and [Link].
Th = actual nominal wall thickness of header [Link] Marking. The manufacturer shall be
th = required thickness of the header according to the responsible for establishing and marking on the
wall thickness equation in para. 403.2.1 section containing extruded outlets the design pressure
To = finished thickness of extruded outlet measured at and temperature, “Established under provisions of
a height equal to ro above the outside surface of ASME B31.4,” and the manufacturer’s name or trademark.
the header
404.3.4 Welded Branch Connections. Welded branch
[Link] Criteria for Use. Integrally reinforced connections shall be as shown in Figures 404.3.4-1,
extruded outlet headers may be used for all ratios of 404.3.4-2, and 404.3.4-3. Design shall meet the
branch diameter to header diameter and all ratios of minimum requirements listed in Table 404.3.4-1 and
design hoop stress to specified minimum yield strength described in (a) through (d) below. Where reinforcement
of the joining header and branch pipe, provided they is required, (e) and (f) shall apply.
comply with this paragraph. (a) Smoothly contoured wrought tees or crosses of
proven design or integrally reinforced extruded
[Link] Design. When the design meets the limita- headers are preferred. When such tees, crosses, or
tions on geometry contained herein, the rules established headers are not used, the reinforcing member shall
are valid and meet the intent of the Code. These rules cover extend completely around the circumference of the
minimum requirements and are selected to ensure satis- header (see Figure 404.3.4-1 for typical constructions).
factory performance of extruded headers subjected to Whenever possible, the inside edges of the finished
pressure. Extruded headers shall be designed to withstand opening shall be rounded to a 1∕8 in. (3 mm) radius. If
forces and moments applied to the branch by thermal the encircling member is thicker than the header and
expansion and contraction; by vibration; by deadweight its ends are to be welded to the header, the ends shall
of piping, valves, fittings, covering, and contents; and by be chamfered (at approximately 45 deg) down to a thick-
earth settlement. ness not in excess of the header thickness, and continuous
fillet welds shall be made. Pads, partial saddles, or other
[Link] Required Area. The required area is
types of localized reinforcements are prohibited.
defined as A = K(thDO), where K shall be taken as follows:
(a) for d/D > 0.60, K = 1.00 (b) The reinforcement member may be of the complete
(b) for d/D > 0.15 and not exceeding 0.60, K = 0.6 + encirclement type (see Figure 404.3.4-1), pad or saddle
2∕3(d/D) type (see Figure 404.3.4-2), or welding outlet fitting
(c) for d/D ≤ 0.15, K = 0.70 type. Where attached to the header by fillet welding,
The design must meet the criteria that the reinforce- the edges of the reinforcement member shall be cham-
fered (at approximately 45 deg) down to a thickness
ment area defined in para. [Link] is not less than
the required area. not in excess of the header thickness. The diameter of
the hole cut in the header pipe for a branch connection

25
 ASME B31.4-2022

Figure 404.3.4-1
Welding Details for Openings With Complete Encirclement Types of Reinforcement

NOTES:
(1) Since fluid pressure is exerted on both sides of pipe metal under tee, the pipe metal does not provide reinforcement.
(2) Provide hole in reinforcement to reveal leakage in buried welds and to provide venting during welding and heat treatment [see
para. 404.3.5(h)]. Not required for tee type.
(3) If the encircling member for tee, sleeve, or saddle type is thicker than the header and its ends are to be welded to the header, the ends shall be
chamfered (at approximately 45 deg) down to a thickness not in excess of the header thickness.

26
 ASME B31.4-2022

Figure 404.3.4-2
Welding Details for Openings With Localized-Type Reinforcement

M = nominal wall thickness of pad reinforcement member W1 (min.) = the smaller of Tb, M, or 3∕8 in. (10 mm)
Mb = nominal wall thickness of saddle at branch end W2 (max.) = approximate Th
Mh = nominal wall thickness of saddle at header end W2 (min.) = the smaller of 0.7Th, 0.7M, or 1∕2 in. (13 mm)
N= 1∕ in. (1.5 mm) (min.), 1∕8 in. (3 mm) (max.) (unless back
16 W3 (max.) = approximate Th
welded or backing strip is used)
Tb = nominal wall thickness of branch W3 (min.) = the smaller of 0.7Th, 0.7Mh, or 1∕2 in. (13 mm)
Th = nominal wall thickness of header W4 (min.) = the smaller of Tb, Mb, or 3∕8 in. (10 mm)

GENERAL NOTES:
(a) All welds are to have equal leg dimensions and a minimum throat equal to 0.707 × leg dimension.
(b) If the reinforcing member is thicker at its edge than the header, the edge shall be chamfered (at approximately 45 deg) down to a thickness
such that leg dimensions of the fillet weld shall be within the minimum and maximum dimensions specified above.
(c) A hole shall be provided in reinforcement to reveal leakage in buried welds and to provide venting during welding and heat treatment [see
para. 404.3.5(h)].

27
 ASME B31.4-2022

Figure 404.3.4-3
Welding Details for Openings Without Reinforcement Other Than That in Header and Branch Walls

N = 1∕ 1
16 in. (1.5 mm) (min.), ∕8 in. (3 mm) (max.) unless back welded or backing strip is used
Tb = nominal wall thickness of branch
Th = nominal wall thickness of header
W1 (min.) = the smaller of Tb, Th, or 3∕8 in. (10 mm)

GENERAL NOTE: When a welding saddle is used, it shall be inserted over this type of connection. See Figure 404.3.4-2.

Table 404.3.4-1
Design Criteria for Welded Branch Connections
Ratio of Design Hoop Stress Ratio of Diameter of Hole Cut for Branch Connection to Nominal Header Diameter
to Specified Minimum Yield More Than 25%
Strength of the Header 25% or less Through 50% More Than 50%
20% or less See para. 404.3.4(d) See para. 404.3.4(d) See paras. 404.3.4(d) and 404.3.4(e)
More than 20% through 50% See paras. 404.3.4(b) and 404.3.4(c) See para. 404.3.4(b) See para. 404.3.4(a)
More than 50% See paras. 404.3.4(b) and 404.3.4(c) See para. 404.3.4(b) See para. 404.3.4(a)

shall not exceed the outside diameter of the branch (f) The reinforcement shall be designed in accordance
connection by more than 1∕4 in. (6.4 mm). with para. 404.3.5.
(c) Reinforcement for branch connections with hole cut
NPS 2 or smaller is not required (see Figure 404.3.4-3 for 404.3.5 Reinforcement of Single Openings
typical details); however, care shall be taken to provide (a) When welded branch connections are made to pipe
suitable protection against vibrations and other external in the form of a single connection, or in a header or mani-
forces to which these small branch connections are fold as a series of connections, the design shall be adequate
frequently subjected. to control the stress levels in the pipe within safe limits.
(d) Reinforcement of opening is not mandatory; The construction shall take cognizance of the stresses in
however, reinforcement may be required for cases involv- the remaining pipe wall due to the opening in the pipe or
ing pressure over 100 psi (7 bar), thin wall pipe, or severe header, the shear stresses produced by the pressure acting
external loads. on the area of the branch opening, and any external
(e) If a reinforcement member is required, and the loading due to thermal movement, weight, vibration,
branch diameter is such that a localized type of reinforce- etc., and shall meet the minimum requirements listed
ment member would extend around more than half the in Table 404.3.4-1. The following paragraphs provide
circumference of the header, then a complete encircle- design rules based on the stress intensification created
ment type of reinforcement member shall be used, regard- by the existence of a hole in an otherwise symmetrical
less of the design hoop stress, or a smoothly contoured section. External loadings, such as those due to
wrought steel tee or cross of proven design or extruded thermal expansion or unsupported weight of connecting
header may be used. pipe, have not been evaluated. These factors should be

28
 ASME B31.4-2022

given attention in unusual designs or under conditions of from the outside surface of the header or of the reinforce-
cyclic loading. ment, if any.
When pipe that has been cold worked to meet the speci- (f) The material of any added reinforcement shall have
fied minimum yield strength is used as a header containing an allowable working stress at least equal to that of the
single or multiple welded branch connections, stresses header wall, except that material of lower allowable stress
shall be in accordance with para. 403.12. may be used if the area is increased in direct ratio of the
(b) The reinforcement required in the crotch section of allowable stresses for header and reinforcement material,
a welded branch connection shall be determined by the respectively.
rule that the metal area available for reinforcement shall (g) The material used for ring or saddle reinforcement
be equal to or greater than the required cross-sectional may be of specifications differing from those of the pipe,
area as defined in (d)(3) and in Figure 404.3.5-1. provided the cross-sectional area is made in correct
(c) The required cross-sectional area, AR, is defined as proportions to the relative strength of the pipe and rein-
the product of d times th forcement materials at the operating temperatures, and
AR = dth provided it has welding qualities comparable to those of
the pipe. No credit shall be taken for the additional
where strength of material having a higher strength than that
d = length of the finished opening in the header wall of the part to be reinforced.
measured parallel to the axis of the header (h) When rings or saddles are used that cover the weld
th = design header wall thickness required by between branch and header, a vent hole shall be provided
para. 403.2.1. For welded pipe, when the in the ring or saddle to reveal leakage in the weld between
branch does not intersect the longitudinal or branch and header and to provide venting during welding
helical seam weld of the header, the allowable and heat treating operations. Vent holes shall be plugged
stress value for seamless pipe of comparable during service to prevent crevice corrosion between pipe
grade may be used in determining th for the and reinforcing member, but no plugging material shall be
purpose of reinforcement calculations only. used that would be capable of sustaining pressure within
When the branch does intersect the longitudinal the crevice.
or helical seam weld of the header, the allowable (i) The use of ribs or gussets shall not be considered as
stress value, S, of the header shall be used in the contributing to reinforcement to the branch connection.
calculation. The allowable stress value, S, of the This does not prohibit the use of ribs or gussets for
branch shall be used in calculating tb. purposes other than reinforcement, such as stiffening.
(j) The branch shall be attached by a weld for the full
(d) The area available for the reinforcement shall be the thickness of the branch or header wall plus a fillet weld,
sum of W1, as shown in Figures 404.3.4-2 and 404.3.4-3. The use
(1) the cross-sectional area resulting from any of concave fillet welds is preferred to minimize corner
excess thickness available in the header thickness stress concentration. Ring or saddle reinforcement
(over the minimum required for the header as defined shall be attached as shown by Figure 404.3.4-2. If the rein-
in para. 403.2.1) and that lies within the reinforcement forcing member is thicker at its edge than the header, the
area as defined in (e) edge shall be chamfered (at approximately 45 deg) down
(2) the cross-sectional area resulting from any to a thickness so leg dimensions of the fillet weld shall be
excess thickness available in the branch wall thickness within the minimum and maximum dimensions specified
over the minimum thickness required for the branch in Figure 404.3.4-2.
and that lies within the reinforcement area as defined (k) Reinforcement rings and saddles shall be accurately
in (e) fitted to the parts to which they are at tached.
(3) the cross-sectional area of all added reinforcing Figures 404.3.4-1 and 404.3.4-2 illustrate some accept-
metal, including weld metal, that is welded to the header able forms of reinforcement.
wall and lies within the reinforcement area as defined in Branch connections attached at an angle less than 90
(e) deg to the header become progressively weaker as the
(e) The reinforcement area is shown in Figure angle decreases. Any such design shall be given individual
404.3.5-1 and is defined as a rectangle whose length study, and sufficient reinforcement shall be provided to
shall extend a distance, d [see (c)], on each side of the compensate for the inherent weakness of such construc-
transverse centerline of the finished opening and tion. The use of encircling ribs to support the flat or reen-
whose width shall extend a distance of 21∕2 times the tering surfaces is permissible and may be included in the
header wall thickness from the outside surface of the strength considerations. The designer is cautioned that
header wall, except that in no case shall it extend stress concentrations near the ends of partial ribs,
more than 21∕2 times the thickness of the branch wall straps, or gussets may defeat their reinforcing value,
and their use is not recommended.

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 ASME B31.4-2022

Figure 404.3.5-1
Reinforcement of Branch Connections

AR A1 + A2 + A3 area available as reinforcement

where
A1 = (Th − th)d
A2 = 2(Tb − tb)L
A3 = summation of area of all added reinforcement, including weld areas that lie within the “area of reinforcement”
AR = reinforcement area required
= dth
d = length of finished opening in the header wall (measured parallel to the axis of the header)
L = smaller of 21∕2Th or 21∕2Tb + M
M = actual (by measurement) or nominal thickness of added reinforcement
Tb = nominal wall thickness of branch
tb = design branch wall thickness required by para. 403.2
Th = nominal wall thickness of header
th = design header wall thickness required by para. 403.2

404.3.6 Reinforcement of Multiple Openings (b) When more than two adjacent openings are to be
provided with a combined reinforcement, the minimum
(a) Two adjacent branches should preferably be spaced
distance between centers of any two of these openings
at such a distance that their individual effective areas of
shall preferably be at least 11∕2 times their average
reinforcement do not overlap. When two or more adjacent
diameter, and the area of reinforcement between them
branches are spaced at less than 2 times their average
shall be at least equal to 50% of the total required for
diameter (so that their effective areas of reinforcement
these two openings on the cross section being considered.
overlap), the group of openings shall be reinforced in
(c) When two adjacent openings, as considered in (b),
accordance with para. 404.3.5. The reinforcing metal
have a distance between centers less than 11∕3 times their
shall be added as a combined reinforcement, the strength
average diameter, no credit for reinforcement shall be
of which shall equal the combined strengths of the rein-
given for any of the metal between these two openings.
forcements that would be required for the separate open-
(d) When pipe that has been cold worked to meet the
ings. In no case shall any portion of a cross section be
specified minimum yield strength is used as a header
considered to apply to more than one opening, or be eval-
containing single or multiple welded branch connections,
uated more than once in a combined area.
stresses shall be in accordance with para. 403.12.

30
 ASME B31.4-2022

(e) Any number of closely spaced adjacent openings, in 404.4.6 Flange Facings. Steel or gray iron flanges shall
any arrangement, may be reinforced as if the group were have contact faces in accordance with ASME B16.1, ASME
one assumed opening of a diameter enclosing all such B16.5, or MSS SP-6.
openings. Special facings are permissible, provided they are
capable of withstanding the same tests as those in
404.4 Flanges ASME B16.5. See para. [Link] for bolting steel to
404.4.1 General. The design of flanges manufactured gray iron flanges.
in accordance with para. 404.4 and standards or specifi- 404.4.7 Flange Gaskets
cations listed in Tables 423.1-1 and 426.1-1 shall be
considered suitable for use at the pressure–temperature [Link] General. Gaskets shall be made of mate-
ratings as set forth in para. 404.1.2. When steel flanged rials that are not injuriously affected by the fluid in
fittings are used, they shall comply with ASME B16.5. the piping system, and shall be capable of withstanding
It is permissible to inside taper bore the hubs on the pressures and temperatures to which they will be
welding neck flanges having dimensions complying subjected in service.
with ASME B16.5 when they are to be attached to thin [Link] Standard Gaskets. Gaskets conforming to
wall pipe. It is recommended that the taper shall not ASME B16.20 or ASME B16.21 may be used.
be more abrupt than a ratio of 1:3. Pipeline flanges manu- Metallic gaskets other than ring type or helical seam
factured in accordance with MSS SP-44 and ASME B16.47 wound shall not be used with ASME Class 150 or
are designed for attachment to thin wall pipe and are lighter flanges.
preferred for this service. The use of metal or metal jacketed gasket (either plain
Where conditions require the use of flanges other than or corrugated) is not limited (except as provided in the
those covered in para. 404.1.2, the flanges shall be preceding sentence) as to pressure, provided that the
designed in accordance with the ASME BPVC, Section gasket material is suitable for the service temperature.
VIII, Division 1, Mandatory Appendix 2. Alternatively, Gasket groups and typical materials may be used as
ASME BPVC Section VIII, Division 2, Part 5, or ASME permitted in ASME B16.5, Table B-1.
BPVC Section VIII, Division 3 may be used, provided Rings for ring joint gaskets shall be of dimensions estab-
the required detailed analysis is performed. lished in ASME B16.20. The materials for these rings shall
404.4.2 Steel Flanges Within Scope of Standard Sizes. be suitable for the service conditions encountered and
Welding neck, slip-on, threaded, and lapped companion shall be softer than the flanges.
flanges, reducing flanges, blind flanges, and flanges cast [Link] Special Gaskets. Special gaskets, including
or forged integral with pipe, fittings, or valves, conforming insulating gaskets, may be used, provided they are suitable
to ASME B16.5, ASME B16.47, or MSS SP-44, are permitted for the temperatures, pressures, fluids, and other condi-
in the sizes listed in these standards and for the pressure– tions to which they may be subjected.
temperature ratings shown in para. 404.1.2. The bore of
welding neck flanges shall correspond to the inside 404.4.8 Flange Bolts
diameter of the pipe with which they are to be used.
[Link] General. Bolting shall conform to ASME
404.4.3 Gray Iron Flanges Within Scope of Standard B16.5. Bolts or stud bolts shall extend completely
Sizes. Gray iron flanges are prohibited, except those that through the nuts. Nuts shall conform to ASTM A194 or
are an integral part of gray iron valves, pressure vessels, ASTM A325, except that ASTM A307 Grade B nuts may
and other equipment and proprietary items [see be used on ASME Class 150 and ASME Class 300 flanges.
paras. 404.5.1 and 423.2.4(b)].
[Link] Bolting for Insulating Flanges. For insu-
404.4.4 Flanges Exceeding Scope of Standard Sizes. lating flanges, 1∕8 in. (3 mm) undersize bolting may be used,
Flanges exceeding scope of standard sizes or otherwise provided that alloy steel bolting material in accordance
departing from ASME B16.5 or MSS SP-44 may be with ASTM A193 or ASTM A354 is used.
used, provided they are designed in accordance with
[Link] Bolting Steel to Gray Iron Flanges. When
para. 404.4.1.
bolting Class 150 steel flanges to Class 125 gray iron
404.4.5 Flanges of Rectangular Cross Section. Slip- flanges, heat treated carbon steel or alloy steel bolting
on flanges of rectangular cross section may be used, (ASTM A193) may be used only when both flanges are
provided they are designed so that flange thickness is flat face and the gasket is full face; otherwise, the
increased to provide strength equal to that of the corre- bolting shall have a maximum tensile strength no
sponding hubbed slip-on flange covered by ASME B16.5, greater than the maximum tensile strength of ASTM
as determined by calculations made in accordance with A307 Grade B. When bolting Class 300 steel flanges to
the ASME BPVC, Section VIII, Division 1. Class 250 gray iron flanges, the bolting shall have a
maximum tensile strength no greater than the

31
 ASME B31.4-2022

maximum tensile strength of ASTM A307 Grade B. Good 404.7 Closures

practice indicates that the flange should be flat faced.
404.7.1 Quick-Opening Closures. A quick-opening
[Link] Bolting for Special Flanges. For flanges closure is a pressure-containing component (see
designed in accordance with para. 404.4.1 (see paras. para. 404.10) used for repeated access to the interior
404.4.4 and 404.4.5), bolting shall conform to the appli- of a piping system. It is not the intent of this Code to
cable section of the ASME BPVC, Section VIII, Division 1. impose the requirements of a specific design method
on the designer or manufacturer of a quick-opening
404.5 Valves closure.
404.5.1 General. Steel valves conforming to standards Quick-opening closures used for pressure containment
and specifications listed in Tables 423.1-1 and 426.1-1 under this Code shall have pressure and temperature
may be used. These valves may contain certain gray, malle- ratings equal to or in excess of the design requirements
able, or wrought iron parts as provided for in API 6D. of the pipeline system to which they are attached (see
Gray iron valves conforming to standards and specifi- paras. 403.1 through 403.6).
cations listed in Tables 423.1-1 and 426.1-1 may be used Quick-opening closures shall be equipped with safety
for pressures not to exceed 250 psi (17 bar). Care shall be locking devices in compliance with the ASME BPVC,
exercised to prevent excessive mechanical loading (see Section VIII, Division 1, UG-35(b).
para. [Link]). Weld end preparation shall be in accordance with
Working pressure ratings of the steel parts of steel para. 434.8.6.
valves are applicable with the temperature limitations 404.7.2 Closure Fittings. Closure fittings commonly
of − 2 0 ° F ( − 3 0 ° C ) to 2 5 0° F ( 1 2 0 ° C ) (se e referred to as “weld caps” shall be designed and manu-
para. [Link]). Where resilient, rubber-like, or plastic factured in accordance with ASME B16.9 or MSS SP-75.
materials are used for sealing, they shall be capable of
withstanding the fluid, pressure, and temperature speci- 404.7.3 Closure Heads. Closure heads such as flat,
fied for the piping system. ellipsoidal (other than in para. 404.7.2), spherical, or
conical heads are allowed for use under this Code.
404.5.2 Special Valves. Special valves not listed in Such items shall be designed in accordance with the
Tables 423.1-1 and 426.1-1 shall be permitted, provided ASME BPVC, Section VIII, Division 1. The maximum allow-
that their design is of at least equal strength and tightness able stresses for materials used in these closure heads
and they are capable of withstanding the same test re- shall be established under the provisions of para. 403.2.
quirements as covered in these standards, and structural If welds are used in the construction of these heads, they
features satisfy the material specification and test proce- shall be 100% radiographically inspected in accordance
dures of valves in similar service set forth in the listed with the provisions of ASME BPVC, Section VIII, Division 1.
standards. Closure heads shall have pressure and temperature
ratings equal to or in excess of the requirements of
404.6 Reducers para. 403.2.1. It is not the intent of this Code to necessarily
404.6.1 Manufactured Reducers. Reductions in line extend the design requirements of ASME BPVC, Section
size may be made by the use of smoothly contoured redu- VIII, Division 1, to other components in which closure
cers manufactured in accordance with ASME B16.5, ASME heads are part of a complete assembly.
B16.9, or MSS SP-75. Reducer fittings shall have pressure– 404.7.4 Fabricated Closures. Orange peel bull plugs
temperature ratings based on the same stress values as are prohibited on systems operating at a hoop stress
were used in establishing the pressure–temperature more than 20% of the specified minimum yield strength
limitations for pipe of the same or equivalent material. of the pipe. Fishtails and flat closures are permitted for
Where appropriate, changes in diameter may be accom- NPS 3 and smaller, operating at less than 100 psi (7 bar).
plished by reducing elbows, reducing outlet tees, or valves. Fishtails and flat closures on pipe larger than NPS 3 are
404.6.2 Fabricated Reducers. Fabricated reducers prohibited.
shall conform to the requirements of para. 404.10. 404.7.5 Bolted Blind Flange Closures. Bolted blind
Seam welds of fabricated reducers shall be visually flange closures shall conform to para. 404.4.
inspected and inspected by radiography or ultrasonic
shear wave techniques. 404.8 Joints
404.6.3 Orange Peel Swages. Orange peel swages are 404.8.1 Butt Welds. Butt welded joints shall be in
prohibited in systems operating at hoop stresses of more accordance with Chapter V.
than 20% of the specified minimum yield strength of the
pipe. Seam welds shall be visually inspected. 404.8.2 Flange Joints. Flanged joints shall meet the
requirements of para. 404.4.

32
 ASME B31.4-2022

404.8.3 Threaded Joints. All external pipe threads on 404.10 Other Pressure-Containing Components
piping components shall be taper pipe threads. They shall
Pressure-containing components that are not covered
be line pipe threads in accordance with API 5B, or NPT
by the standards listed in Table 423.1-1 or Table 426.1-1
threads in accordance with ASME B1.20.1. All internal pipe
and for which design equations or procedures are not
threads on piping components shall be taper pipe threads,
given herein may be used where the design of similarly
except for sizes NPS 2 and smaller with design gage pres-
shaped, proportioned, and sized components has been
sures not exceeding 150 psi (10 bar), in which case
proven satisfactory by successful performance under
straight threads may be used.
comparable service conditions. (Interpolation may be
404.8.4 Sleeve, Coupled, and Other Patented Joints. made between similarly shaped proved components
Steel connectors and swivels complying with API 6H may with small differences in size or proportion.) In the
be used. Gray, malleable, and wrought iron threaded absence of such service experience, the pressure
couplings are acceptable subject to the limits of design shall be based on an analysis consistent with
para. 423.2.4. Sleeve, coupled, and other patented the general design philosophy embodied in this Code,
joints may be used, provided and substantiated by at least one of the following:
(a) a production joint has been subject to proof tests to (a) proof tests (as described in ASME BPVC, Section
determine the safety of the joints under simulated service VIII, Division 1, UG-101)
conditions. When vibration, fatigue, cyclic conditions, low (b) experimental stress analysis (as described in ASME
temperature, thermal expansion, or other severe condi- BPVC, Section VIII, Division 2, Annex 5-F)
tions are anticipated, the applicable conditions shall be (c) engineering calculations
incorporated in the tests.
(b) adequate provisions are made to prevent separa- 404.11 Used Piping Components
tion of the joint and to prevent longitudinal or lateral
Used piping components such as fittings, elbows, bends,
movement beyond the limits provided for in the
intersections, couplings, reducers, closures, flanges,
joining member.
valves, and equipment may be reused. (Reuse of pipe
404.9 Supports, Braces, Anchors, and is covered by para. 403.10). However, such components
and equipment shall be cleaned, examined, and recondi-
Attachments
tioned, if necessary, to ensure that they meet all require-
ð22Þ 404.9.1 General. The applicable sections of MSS SP-58 ments for the intended service and are free of defects. See
for materials and design of pipe hangers and supports and ASME PCC-2, Article 3.5 for more information about flange
of MSS SP-69 for their selection and application may be repair and conversion.
used. In addition, reuse shall be contingent on identification of
If pipe is designed to operate at a hoop stress of more the specification under which the item was originally
than 20% Sy, all attachments welded to the pipe shall be produced. Where the specification cannot be identified,
made to a separate cylindrical member that completely use shall be prohibited.
encircles the pipe. This encircling member shall be
welded to the pipe by continuous circumferential welds. 404.12 Auxiliary and Relief Piping
404.9.2 Supports. Supports shall be designed to 404.12.1 Instrument and Other Auxiliary Piping. All
support the pipe without causing excessive local stresses instrument and other auxiliary piping connected to
in the pipe and without imposing excessive axial or lateral primary piping and that operates at a gage pressure
friction forces that might prevent the desired freedom of exceeding 15 psi (1 bar) shall be constructed in accor-
movement. dance with the provisions of this Code.
404.9.3 Braces. Braces and damping devices may 404.12.2 Relief Piping. Pressure disposal or relief
occasionally be required to prevent vibration of piping. piping between pressure origin point and relief device
shall be in accordance with this Code.
404.9.4 Attachments. All attachments to the pipe shall An isolation valve capable of full design flow relief may
be designed to minimize the added stresses in the pipe be installed between the origin point and relief device,
wall because of the attachment. Nonintegral attachments, provided such valve can be locked or sealed in the
such as pipe clamps and ring girders, are preferred where open position. Disposal piping from the relief device
they will fulfill the supporting or anchoring functions. shall be connected to a proper disposal facility, which
External and internal attachments to piping shall be may be a flare stack, suitable pit, sump, or tank. This
designed so they will not cause flattening of the pipe, disposal piping shall have no valve between the relief
excessive localized bending stresses, or harmful device and the disposal facility unless such valve can
thermal gradients in the pipe wall. be locked or sealed in the open position.

33