304: OPEN ELECTIVE : PSYCHOLOGY FOR LIFE

Unit 1: Introduction- 10 Hours

Psychology as a scientific discipline :Definition, nature goals and branches, myths and
misconceptions. Is psychology a ‘science’ or ‘art’? What is science and what are its
characteristics? What is the subject matter of psychology?

Psychology is concerned with almost all aspects of our [Link], there are many
misconceptions about psychology. Many people think that psychology deals with only
treating people with mental disorders. Some others feel that psychologists can read your mind
just by looking at you or your face/forehead. They tend to equate psychologists with
astrologers, gemologists, numerologists, palmists or graphologists, who claim to solve your
problems of life and predict your future.

The origin of psychology dates back to the 1870s. The term ‘Psychology’ is derived from two
Greek words; Psyche means “soul or breath” and Logos means “knowledge or study” (study
or investigation of something). The word ‘Psychology’ was not in common use before the
nineteenth century, and the field of psychology did not actually become an independent
science until the middle of the nineteenth century.

Psychology emerged as an independent academic discipline in 1879, when a German

Professor Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory at the university of
Leipzig, Germany

Wundt is traditionally recognised as the founder, or father of modern psychology, and 1879 is
seen as the year that psychology finally emerged as a unique field. Wundt started studying the
structure of mind which meant the immediate (conscious) experience, the contents and
processes of subjective experience such as sensations, thoughts, feelings and emotions. Thus,
formally, psychology was recognised as an independent science in 1879.
Definitions:
Early Definitions:

● ‘the science of soul’

● ‘the science of mind’
● ‘the science of consciousness’

Finally, modern Psychology has been defined as ‘a science of behaviour.’ In the early decades
of the twentieth century, Watson, the father of the school of ‘Behaviourism’, defined
psychology as ‘the study of behaviour’.

Some of the more recent definitions of Psychology, in chronological order, are as follows:

● Psychology is the science of human and animal behaviour. It includes the application
of this science to human problems. (Morgan et al., 1986)
● The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. (Feldman,1996)
● The scientific study of behaviour and mental processes and how they are affected by
an organism’s physical state, mental state and external environment (Tavris and Wade,
1997)
● Psychology is all about human behaviour, about mental processes, and about the
context in which behaviour and mental processes occur. (Das, 1998)
● The science of behaviour and mental processes. (Lahey,1998)
● The science of behavior and cognitive processes. (Baron, 1999)
● The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. (Ciccarelli & Meyer,2006;
Coon & Mitterer, 2007, 2008)
The science that studies behavior and mental processes.( Rathus,2008) As is evident in the
above definitions, study of behavior (human and animal) has been emphasized in all of them.
In addition, most authors have also included ‘cognitive/mental processes’ in their definitions
of psychology.
The simplicity of this definition is in some ways deceiving. Most psychologists would argue
that the field should be receptive to a variety of viewpoints and approaches. Consequently,
the phrase behavior and mental processes in the definition of psychology must be understood
to mean many things: It encompasses not just what people do but also their thoughts,
emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories, and even the biological activities that
maintain bodily functioning.

Psychologists try to describe, predict, and explain human behavior and mental processes, as
well as helping to change and improve the lives of people and the world in which they live.
They use scientific methods to find answers that are far more valid and legitimate.

Nature and Characteristics of Behaviour- Determinants of behaviour

Behavior is a broad [Link] to psychologists, behavior is every thing or any thing that
a human being or animal does that can be observed in some way. In other words, behavior
includes all actions and responses of organisms that can be measured directly or indirectly.
Behavior not only means bodily movements but also can include mental and cognitive
processes such as feelings, attitudes, thoughts, emotions, and all other internal vents, which
cannot be observed directly but can be measured indirectly through what people say (vocal
behavior) and how they react to different problems and situations.

We will now consider some of the general characteristics of human behavior, as described by
Parameswaran & Beena (1988, 2002). These are:

● Behaviour is influenced by a number of factors: Behavior is influenced by a

number of factors such as biological, cultural, social, environmental, past
experience, motivational, emotional, cognitive (e.g. feelings, emotions,
motivation, thoughts) etc.
● Behaviour varies in complexity Behaviour can be as simple as picking a pen,
waving a friend or reflex responses like sneezing etc. Yet some other
behaviours involve complex activities like repairing a car. Activities such as
landing on the moon, flying a fighter plane, rock climbing etc. are some of the
examples of highly complex behaviour.

The factors influencing behaviour are of different kinds Behaviour is influenced by two large
sets of factors:

● Those belonging to the individual; and

● Those belonging to the environment.
Factors pertaining to an individual can be categorized under physiological (biological needs
such as hunger, thirst etc.) and psychological ( ideas, opinions, attitudes etc.).

The environmental factors include physical surroundings, family and friends, the larger
society and even the overall cultural and social background. Individual differences
Behaviour also varies from one person to the other as well as from one group of people to the
other group of people. People differ in their physiological and bodily conditions, in their past
experiences, in their abilities, in their background etc. It is therefore natural that if ten people
are put in the same situation, each person’s behavior differs from that of others, in some
respects or in some degrees.

Behaviour also shows similarities Though behavior differs from person to person but this
does not mean that all people differ from all others, at all times, and in all situations. There is
also a considerable degree of similarity in behavior among people. For instance, if a particle
of dust falls into a person’s eye, he/she tries to remove it. This type of behaviour is
universally found.

Behaviour is always purposeful and goal directive Human behaviour is always purposeful
and one’s actions are always directed towards some goal or the other. A boy sitting and
studying suddenly gets up and takes a glass of water. Here, the goal is to have a glass of water
and the purpose is to quench his thirst. On the other hand, a boy is sitting and studying and
feels cold. He gets up and switches off the fan. Here the goal is to switch off the fan and the
purpose is to avoid the discomfort of cold. So, all our behaviors can be categorized under:

● Approach behaviour (Positive goal directed) or

● Avoidance behaviour (Negative goal avoidance)

Behaviour is changeable to a large extent It was mentioned earlier that a number of factors
influence behaviour. In view of this, it is possible to change behaviour by modifying these
factors. These changes are the results of one’s practice or experiences (learning).

Behaviour also shows stability Though emphasis has been laid on the possible changes in
behavior, it must be mentioned that life is not always full of all sorts of changes. While
behavior changes, at the same time there is also a certain stability in behavior. It does not
change with every change in the environment nor do all forms of behaviour change. Human
behaviour shows a lot of stability. For instance, you may still find your grandmother
preferring old ideas and old ways of life, though she is living in an ultra modern society.

Conclusion:
As already mentioned, behaviour is influenced by a number of factors and a variety of
purposes. Every human being has physiological, psychological, personal and social purposes.
He/she has also been the subject of different learning experiences. In spite of all this,
behaviour always shows an order and a hierarchy of purposes. Every individual behaves as a
total person and this process of the organisation of different purposes, different learnings and
different influencing factors results in an integration of behaviour. Thus, an individual put in
different situations, still shows certain characteristic ways and styles of behaviour which help
us to understand and predict his/her behaviour. We often say, Ram is a pleasant person.
Gobind is an unpleasant person, Krishna is a sociable person and so on. Psychologists use the
term Personality to describe this process of integration. The greater the degree of integration
in a person’s behaviour, the more effective his behaviour is likely to be.

Psychology, As a Science

Psychology has been defined as a science of behaviour. But is it a science like physics,
chemistry, biology and zoology or something different?

Let us look at the following definitions of science:

Science is a systematized body of knowledge gathered through carefully observing and

measuring events (Morgan et al.,1986).

Science is an approach to knowledge, based on systematic observation (Lahey,1998) The sole

aim of science is to classify, understand, and unify the objects and phenomena of the material
world. By using a combination of accurate observation and experimentation, logic and
intuition, scientists seek to understand the rules that govern all levels of the natural universe.
We will now describe the characteristics of science.
Characteristics of Science

The observation of events are systematized in various ways, but mainly by classifying and
establishing general principles and laws to describe and predict new events as accurately as
possible.

Psychology studies behaviour in the same way that the other sciences study their subject
matter and therefore shares a number of features with them. In common with other sciences,
psychology, as a science, has the following characteristics, as described by Morgan et al.
(1986).

● Empirical observation Psychology, as a science, is first of all, and above all,

empirical. That is to say, it rests on experiment and observation, rather than on
argument, opinion, or belief.
● Systematic approach and theory Data from observations and experiments
are essential to science, but for them “to make some sense” in helping us to
understand events, they must be ordered in some way. The scientist tries to
find a limited number of principles which will summarize the data
economically. Scientific theories are important tools for the organisation of
data.
● Measurement Another distinguishing feature of many sciences is
measurement, defined as assignment of numbers to objects or events
according to certain rules. Physics is ranked highest (most scientific) among
the sciences as it has developed the most precise measurements.
● Definition of terms Careful definition of terms is essential to clear thinking
in science. The procedure in psychology is to define concepts by relating them
to observable behaviour (operational definition). When we define a concept
operationally, we define it in terms of measurable and observable operations.
For example, the concepts of length, height in physics, and concepts like
intelligence, motivation, personality in psychology are defined in terms of
observable operations, which can be performed to measure them. However,
psychology cannot measure many behaviours such as bravery, friendship,
love, beauty etc. as these cannot be defined operationally.
 The above characteristics are common to all sciences including psychology. However,
psychology is a different type of science (Behavioural science). In physics or
chemistry, researchers investigate processes and events which remain stable and
constant to a large extent. This makes it possible to measure and predict with a
reasonable degree of accuracy. But it is not the case with human behaviour, which is
highly complex, not easily controllable, and appears much more unpredictable than
the reactions of physical and chemical substances.

Whereas other sciences investigate things around man, psychology studies man
himself. The methods used in psychological research include observation, interviews,
psychological testing, laboratory experimentation, and statistical analysis.

Thus, psychology is categorized under the youngest group of scientific inquiry, the
‘Social/Behavioural Sciences’, which also includes subjects like anthropology,
economics, education, geography, history, linguistics, sociology etc.(Rush, 1972).

The application of knowledge to practical problems is an art; it is the skill or knack

for doing things which is acquired by study, practice and special experience. Since
principles and laws of psychology are applied to solve human problems in a number
of situations (families, schools, organisations, environment) as well as treating
behaviour disorders and emotional problems, it is also an art.

Methods in Psychology
Naturalistic observation, laboratory observation, case studies and surveys
In psychology, various research methods are employed to study behavior and mental
processes. Here are brief explanations:

● 1. Naturalistic Observation:
Definition: This method involves observing and recording behavior in naturally
occurring situations without any manipulation or control by the researcher. Example:
Watching children play in a park to understand their social interactions without
intervening.

● 2. Laboratory Observation:
 Definition: This method involves studying behavior in a controlled environment,
typically a laboratory, where the researcher can manipulate variables and control
conditions. Example:Conducting experiments on memory by presenting participants
with stimuli in a controlled lab setting.

● 3. Case Studies:
Definition: In-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event. It involves gathering
detailed information through various sources, such as interviews, observations, and
records. Example:Studying the life and cognitive abilities of an individual with a rare
brain injury to understand the effects on memory and behavior.
● 4. Surveys:
Definition:Researchers collect data by asking questions to a sample of individuals,
often through interviews or [Link]: Conducting a survey to gather
information on people's attitudes towards a specific social issue.

Each method has its strengths and limitations, and researchers often choose the one that best
suits their research question and goals. Naturalistic observation provides insights into
real-world behavior, laboratory observation allows for controlled experiments, case studies
offer in-depth understanding of unique cases, and surveys enable the collection of large
amounts of data from a diverse group.

Psychology: What it is and what it is not

Psychology is an exciting field. It is at once familiar, exotic, surprising, and challenging.

Most of all, psychology is changing. Psychology is about each of us. It asks us to take a
reflective attitude as we inquire, “How can we step outside of ourselves to look objectively at
how we live, think, feel, and act?” psychologists believe the answer is through careful
thought, observation, and inquiry. (Coon & Mitterer, (2008).

Today, psychology finds useful applications in an individual’s life almost from the womb to
the tomb. Psychology, like all academic disciplines, has its own concepts such as intelligence,
personality, stress, learning, memory, thinking, perception etc.
The goals of psychology, like other sciences, are to describe, explain, predict and control
(Coon & Mitterer, 2008) the phenomena it studies. Psychology, thus, attempts to describe,
explain, predict and control behaviour and mental processes.

Psychology as a science of behaviour, attempts to explain the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of behaviour.
The knowledge of psychology can also be applied to solve various problems facing human
beings, be it at home, society, work place or in the whole world.

However, there are many ‘professionals’ who practice applying psychology without any type
of training in psychology. They may be called ‘pseudo-psychologists’. In order to further
clarify, let us describe some of the pseudo-psychologies

A gemologist, graphologist, numerologist, palmist or an astrologer, all claim to solve your

problems of life and predict your future. They seem to be psychologists. But these disciplines
are categorized under “pseudo- psychology” or “pseudosciences”. A Pseudopsychology is
any unfounded system that superficially resembles psychology. Many pseudopsychologies
give the appearance of science but are actually false. (Pseudo means “false”).
Pseudopsychologies change little over time because their followers avoid evidence that
contradicts their beliefs. Scientists, in contrast, actively look for contradictions as a way to
advance knowledge. They are sceptical critics of their own theories (Schick & Vaughn,
2001).

The Subfields of Psychology: Psychology’s Family Tree- Roles of Psychologists.

As the study of psychology has grown, it has given rise to a number of subfields.

● Behavioural genetics: Behavioural genetics studies the inheritance of traits related to

behaviour.
● Behavioural neuroscience: Behavioural neuroscience examines the biological basis of
behaviour.
● Clinical psychology: Clinical psychology deals with the study, diagnosis, and
treatment of psychological disorders.
● Clinical neuropsychology: Clinical neuropsychology unites the areas of
biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship between
 biological factors and psychological disorders.
● Cognitive psychology: Cognitive psychology focuses on the study of higher mental
processes.
● Counseling psychology: Counseling psychology focuses primarily on educational,
social, and career adjustment problems.
● Cross-cultural psychology: Cross-cultural psychology investigates the similarities and
differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic
groups.
● Developmental psychology: Developmental psychology examines how people grow
and change from the moment of conception through death.
● Educational psychology: Educational psychology is concerned with teaching and
learning processes, such as the relationship between motivation and school
performance.
● Environmental psychology: Environmental psychology considers the relationship
between people and their physical environment.
● Evolutionary psychology: Evolutionary psychology considers how behaviour is
influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors.: Experimental psychology
Experimental psychology studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and
thinking about the world.
● Forensic psychology: Forensic psychology focuses on legal issues, such as
determining the accuracy of witness memories.
● Health psychology: Health psychology explores the relationship between
psychological factors and physical ailments or disease.
● Industrial/organizational: Industrial/organizational psychology is concerned with the
psychology of the workplace.
● Personality psychology: Personality psychology focuses on the consistency in
people’s behaviour over time and the traits that differentiate one person from another.
● Psychology of women: Psychology of women focuses on issues such as
discrimination against women and the causes of violence against women.
● School psychology: School psychology is devoted to counseling children in
elementary and secondary schools who have academic or emotional problems.
● Social psychology: Social psychology is the study of how people’s thoughts, feelings,
and actions are affected by others.
 ● Sport psychology: Sport psychology applies psychology to athletic activity and
exercise.

References:

● Morgan, C. T., & King, R. A. (1975). Introduction to Psychology. McGraw-Hill.

● Mangal, S. K. (2021). General Psychology. Sterling Publishers.
● Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (2016). Theories of Personality. Cengage Learning.
● Feldman, R. S. (2019). Understanding Psychology (13th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education