COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

EXPERT SYSTEMS
What are Expert Systems?
Various definitions of expert systems have been offered by several authors:
 An expert system belongs to a field of artificial intelligence, and it is a computer program that
simulates the judgment and behavior of an individual that has expert knowledge and experience in a
particular field. It is a knowledge-based computer program that exhibits a degree of expertise in a
particular domain thereby solving problem or making decisions that is comparable to that of a human
expert.
 It could also be referred to as an AI programs that achieve expert-level competence in solving problems
in task areas by bringing to bear a body of knowledge about specific tasks. It could be referred to as
knowledge-based or expert systems
 A type of application program that makes decisions or solves problems in a particular field by using
knowledge and analytical rules defined by experts in the field.
 Expert systems represent a branch of artificial intelligence, aiming to take the experience of human
specialists and to transfer to a computer system. Specialty knowledge is stored in the computer, which
by an execution system (inference engine) is reasoning and it derives specific conclusions for the
problem.
 A computer program that uses knowledge and reasoning techniques to solve problems that normally
require the abilities of human experts. Software that applies human-like reasoning involving rules and
heuristics to solve a problem. An Expert System (EPS) is a software system, which finds solutions on
the basis of expert knowledge or provides an evaluation of known problems. Examples are systems
for the support of medical diagnosis or for the analysis of scientific data.
 Is a particular development of Artificial intelligence that helps to solve problems or make decisions
through the use of a store of relevant Information (known as the Knowledge base, and derived from
one or more human experts), and a set of reasoning techniques.
 Artificial intelligence based system that converts the knowledge of an expert in a specific subject into
a software code. This code can be merged with other such codes (based on the knowledge of other
experts) and used for answering questions (queries) submitted through a computer.
 Despite these definitions of Expert systems by different authors, it is important to summarize that an
expert system is a knowledge-based computer program that exhibits, within a specific domain, a
degree of expertise in problem solving that is comparable to that of a human expert. This problem

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

method uses a knowledge base, which is carefully formulated on the basis of expert judgment,
intuition, and experience. Thus an expert system embodies the cognition and ability of an expert in a
certain realm, thus emulating the decision-making ability of a human.
The term expert system is reserved for programs whose knowledge base contains the knowledge used by
human experts, in contrast to knowledge gathered from textbooks or non-experts. The two terms, expert
systems (ES) and knowledge-based systems (KBS), are sometimes used synonymously. Taken together, they
represent the most widespread type of AI application. The area of human intellectual endeavor to be captured
in an expert system is called the task domain. Task refers to some goal-oriented, problem-solving activity.
Domain refers to the area within which the task is being performed. Typical tasks are diagnosis, planning,
scheduling, configuration and design. An example of a task domain is aircraft crew scheduling.
In most cases, the purpose of the expert systems is to help and support user‟s reasoning and not to replace
human expert judgment. In fact, expert systems offer to the inexperienced user a solution when human experts
are not available.
Expert system is a subset of intelligent systems design under AI, however, expert and intelligence are not the
same thing. Let us try to differentiate between intelligence and expertise with a view to uncovering the focal
area of expert system in the broad discussions of intelligent systems
In most cases, the purpose of the expert systems is to help and support user‟s reasoning and not to replace
human expert judgment. In fact, expert systems offer to the inexperienced user a solution when human experts
are not available.
Expert system is a subset of intelligent systems design under AI, however, expert and intelligence are not the
same thing. Let us try to differentiate between intelligence and expertise with a view to uncovering the focal
area of expert
The expert systems are the computer applications developed to solve complex problems in a particular
domain, at the level of extra-ordinary human intelligence and expertise.
Characteristics of Expert Systems
 High performance
 Understandable
 Reliable
 Highly responsive
 Capabilities of Expert Systems

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

Features of Expert Systems

Expert system operates as an interactive system that responds to questions, asks for clarifications, makes
recommendations and generally aids the decision-making process.
Expert systems have many features:
Operates as an interactive system This means an expert system :
o Responds to questions
o Asks for clarifications
o Makes recommendations
o Aids the decision-making process.
Tools have ability to sift (filter) knowledge
o Storage and retrieval of knowledge
o Mechanisms to expand and update knowledge base on a continuing basis.
Make logical inferences based on knowledge stored
o Simple reasoning mechanisms is used
o Knowledge base must have means of exploiting the knowledge stored, else it is useless; e.g.,
learning all the words in a language, without knowing how to combine those words to form a
meaningful sentence.
Ability to Explain Reasoning
 Remembers logical chain of reasoning; therefore user may ask
for explanation of a recommendation
factors considered in recommendation
 Enhances user confidence in recommendation and acceptance of expert system
Domain-Specific
 A particular system caters a narrow area of specialization; e.g., a medical expert system
 Quality of advice offered by an expert system is dependent on the amount of knowledge
Capability to assign Confidence Values
 Can deliver quantitative information
 Can interpret qualitatively derived values
 Can address imprecise and incomplete data through assignment of confidence values.
Cost-Effective alternative to Human Expert

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

 Expert systems have become increasingly popular because of their specialization, albeit in a narrow
field.
 Specialists in many areas are rare and the cost of consulting them is high; an expert system of those
areas can be useful and cost-effective alternative in the long run.
 Encoding and storing the domain-specific knowledge is economic process due to small size.
Goal Driven Reasoning or Backward Chaining
An inference technique which uses IF-THEN rules to repetitively break a goal into smaller sub-goals
which are easier to prove;
Coping with Uncertainty
The ability of the system to reason with rules and data which decision to make.
Often the Knowledge is imperfect which causes uncertainty.
To work in the real world, Expert systems must be able to deal with uncertainty.
 One simple way is to associate a numeric value with each piece of information in the
system.
 the numeric value represents the certainty with which the information is known. There
are different ways in which these numbers can be defined, and how they are combined
during the inference process.
Data Driven Reasoning or Forward Chaining
An inference technique which uses IF-THEN rules to deduce a problem solution from initial data;
Data Representation
Data representation is the way in which the problem specific data in the system is stored and accessed.
Expert system is built around a knowledge base module.
User Interface
The user interface is the portion of the system which creates an intermediary between the system and the user
for interaction. The acceptability of an expert system depends largely on the quality of the user interface.
 Scrolling dialog interface: It is easiest to implement and communicate with the user.
 Pop-up menus, windows, mice are more advanced interfaces and powerful tools for communicating
with the user; they provide graphic support.
Explanations
The ability of the system to explain the reasoning process that it used to reach a recommendation. An
important feature of expert systems is their ability to explain themselves. Given that the system knows which

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

rules were used during the inference process, the system can provide those rules to the user as means for
explaining the results.
By looking at explanations, the knowledge engineer can see how the system is behaving, and how the rules
and data are interacting. This is very valuable diagnostic tool during development.
They are incapable of –
 Substituting human decision makers
 Possessing human capabilities
 Producing accurate output for inadequate knowledge base
 Refining their own knowledge
Benefits/advantages of Expert Systems
 Permanence: Expert systems do not forget.
 Reproducibility: Copies of an expert system can be made.
 Power: For applications where there is a maze of rules exhibited, it can be unraveled by the expert
system.
 Efficiency: Expert systems can increase throughput and reduce personnel costs.
-Expert systems are inexpensive to operate.
-Development costs can be amortized over many years.
- Expert systems can eliminate routine costs and reduce major maintenance costs.
 Consistency: With expert systems, similar events are handled the same way. Expert systems will make
comparable recommendations for 'like' situations and are not affected by recent or primary effects.
 Documentation: Expert systems provide permanent documentation of the decision process.

 Completeness: An expert system can review all the transactions or possibilities.

 Timeliness: Fraud and/or errors can be prevented. Information is available sooner for decision making
and action. The expert system works 24 hours a day, all year long.
 Scope: The expert system can encompass the cumulative expertise of many human experts.
 Business success: Owners reduce the inherent risks of conducting their business due to:
- Consistency of decision making.
- Documentation (ISO requirements)
- Acquired expertise
 Positive impacts:

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

- Productivity gains and cost savings.

- Critical new tool for managers and a proactive answer to expertise attrition.
- Decisions and solutions are more consistent and less subject to biases or sensitivity to the
environment
- Employment: shift to-wards more satisfying
Disadvantages of Expert Systems
 Common sense: In addition to a great deal of technical knowledge, human experts have commonsense.
It is not yet known how to give expert systems common sense.
 Creativity: Human experts can respond creatively to unusual situations, expert systems cannot.
 Learning: Human experts automatically adapt to changing environments; expert systems must
explicitly update. Case-based reasoning and neural networks are methods that can incorporate
learning.
 Sensory experience: Human experts have available to them a wide range of sensory experience; expert
systems are currently dependent on symbolic input.
 Degradation: Expert systems are not good at recognizing when no answer exists or when the problem
is outside their area of expertise.
COMPONENTS OF EXPERT SYSTEMS
The components of ES include −
 Knowledge Base
 Inference Engine
 User Interface
 Working memory
 Explanation facility

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

Architecture of an Expert system

Knowledge Base
It contains domain-specific and high-quality knowledge. Knowledge is required to exhibit intelligence. The
success of any ES majorly depends upon the collection of highly accurate and precise knowledge. What is
Knowledge?
The data is collection of facts. The information is organized as data and facts about the task domain. Data,
information and past experience combined together are termed as knowledge.
Components of Knowledge Base
The knowledge base of an ES is a store of both, factual and heuristic knowledge.
 Factual Knowledge − It is the information widely accepted by the Knowledge Engineers and
scholars in the task domain. •
 Heuristic Knowledge − It is about practice, accurate judgement, one’s ability of evaluation, and
guessing.

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

Knowledge representation
It is the method used to organize and formalize the knowledge in the knowledge base. It is in the form of IF-
THEN-ELSE rules.
Knowledge Acquisition
The success of any expert system majorly depends on the quality, completeness, and accuracy of the
information stored in the knowledge base.
The knowledge base is formed by readings from various experts, scholars, and the Knowledge
Engineers. The knowledge engineer is a person with the qualities of empathy, quick learning, and case
analyzing skills.
He acquires information from subject expert by recording, interviewing, and observing him at work, etc. He
then categorizes and organizes the information in a meaningful way, in the form of IF-THEN-ELSE rules, to
be used by interference machine. The knowledge engineer also monitors the development of the ES
Inference Engine
Use of efficient procedures and rules by the Inference Engine is essential in deducting a correct,
flawless solution.
In case of knowledge-based ES, the Inference Engine acquires and manipulates the knowledge from the
knowledge base to arrive at a particular solution.
In case of rule based ES, it
 Applies rules repeatedly to the facts, which are obtained from earlier rule application.
 Adds new knowledge into the knowledge base if required.
 Resolves rules conflict when multiple rules are applicable to a particular case.
To recommend a solution, the Inference Engine uses the following strategies –
 Forward Chaining
 Backward Chaining
Forward Chaining
It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen next?” Here, the Inference
Engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and finally deduces the outcome. It considers all
the facts and rules, and sorts them before concluding to a solution.
This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For example, prediction of share market
status as an effect of changes in interest rates
Forward Chaining

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

It is a strategy of an expert system to answer the question, “What can happen next?”
Here, the Inference Engine follows the chain of conditions and derivations and finally deduces
the outcome. It considers all the facts and rules, and sorts them before concluding to a
solution.
This strategy is followed for working on conclusion, result, or effect. For example, prediction
of share market status as an effect of changes in interest rates
Backward Chaining With this strategy, an expert system finds out the answer to the question, “Why
this happened?” On the basis of what has already happened, the Inference Engine tries to find out
which conditions could have happened in the past for this result. This strategy is followed for finding out
cause or reason. For example, diagnosis of blood cancer in humans.

Backward Chaining
With this strategy, an expert system finds out the answer to the question, “Why this happened?”
On the basis of what has already happened, the Inference Engine tries to find out which conditions
could have happened in the past for this result. This strategy is followed for finding out cause or reason. For
example, diagnosis of blood cancer in humans.

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

User Interface
User interface provides interaction between user of the ES and the ES itself. It is generally Natural Language
Processing so as to be used by the user who is well-versed in the task domain. The user of the ES need not be
necessarily an expert in Artificial Intelligence.
It explains how the ES has arrived at a particular recommendation. The explanation may appear in
the following forms –
 Natural language displayed on screen.
 Verbal narrations in natural language.
 Listing of rule numbers displayed on the screen
The user interface makes it easy to trace the credibility of the deduction.
Requirements of Efficient ES User Interface
It should help users to accomplish their goals in shortest possible way. •
It should be designed to work for user’s existing or desired work practices. •
Its technology should be adaptable to user’s requirements; not the other way round. •
It should make efficient use of user input
The working memory
The working memory might be used to store intermediate conclusions and any other information inferred by
the system from the data.
Explanation facility
The explanation facilities enable the user to ask the expert system how a particular conclusion is reached and
why a specific fact is needed. An expert system must be able to explain its reasoning and justify its advice,
analysis or conclusion. It is also a part of the expert system that allows a user or decision maker to understand
how the expert system arrived at certain conclusions or results.
Expert Systems Limitations
No technology can offer easy and complete solution. Large systems are costly, require significant
development time, and computer resources. ESs have their limitations which include –
 Limitations of the technology
 Difficult knowledge acquisition
 ES are difficult to maintain
 High development costs

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

Applications of Expert System

The following table shows where ES can be applied.

ASPECTS OF HUMAN INTELLIGENCE IN KNOWLEDGE-BASED SYSTEMS

Intelligent knowledge-based systems (KBS) are designed to mimic human intelligence in decision-making
and problem-solving. The following five aspects of human intelligence are essential in characterizing these
systems:
Learning and Adaptation: Human intelligence enables individuals to learn from past experiences and adapt
to new situations. Similarly, a knowledge-based system should have machine learning capabilities, allowing
it to improve performance over time based on new data and feedback.
Example: A medical diagnosis system that refines its accuracy as it processes more patient data.
Reasoning and Problem-Solving: Humans use logical reasoning (both inductive and deductive) to draw
conclusions and solve complex problems. Knowledge-based systems should be able to analyze given facts
and apply rules to derive meaningful insights.
Example: An expert system for legal advice that applies legal rules to a case and suggests appropriate actions.

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

Knowledge Representation: Human intelligence involves organizing and structuring knowledge in a way
that is easy to retrieve and apply. In a KBS, knowledge must be stored in a structured format such as semantic
networks, ontologies, or rule-based systems to enable efficient decision-making.
Example: A chatbot using a knowledge graph to answer customer queries accurately.
Perception and Interaction: Humans perceive their environment through sensory input and interact with it
accordingly. Intelligent systems should be able to process inputs such as text, images, and voice to interact
meaningfully with users.
Example: A voice assistant (e.g., Siri or Alexa) that understands and responds to spoken commands.
Decision-Making and Uncertainty Handling: Human intelligence includes making decisions even in
uncertain or incomplete situations. A knowledge-based system should incorporate fuzzy logic, probabilistic
reasoning, or Bayesian networks to handle uncertainty and provide the best possible solutions.
Example: A weather prediction system that forecasts conditions based on incomplete or probabilistic data.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN EXPERT SYSTEM
The process of ES development is iterative. The process of building an expert system is called knowledge
engineering. Correspondingly, developers of expert systems are referred to as knowledge engineers.
Knowledge engineering or knowledge-based engineering
Expert system technologies are varieties of artificial intelligence (AI) approaches in which decision-making
knowledge is codified and modeled, the process of designing an expert system through the AI approaches is
called knowledge-based engineering.
Steps
The steps in a typical expert systems analysis and design methodology are summarized below.
1. Identify Problem Domain
 The problem must be suitable for an expert system to solve it.
 Find the experts in task domain for the ES project.
 Establish cost-effectiveness of the system.
2. Design the System •
 Identify the ES Technology •
 Know and establish the degree of integration with the other systems and databases.
 Realize how the concepts can represent the domain knowledge best.
3. Develop the Prototype From Knowledge Base: The knowledge engineer works to
 Acquire domain knowledge from the expert.

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

 Represent it in the form of If-THEN-ELSE rules.

4. Test and Refine the Prototype •
 The knowledge engineer uses sample cases to test the prototype for any deficiencies in
performance.
 End users test the prototypes of the ES.
5. Develop and Complete the ES
 Test and ensure the interaction of the ES with all elements of its environment, including end
users, databases, and other information systems.
 Document the ES project well.
 Train the user to use ES.
6. Maintain the System
 Keep the knowledge base up-to-date by regular review and update.
 Cater for new interfaces with other information systems, as those systems evolve.

EXPERT SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT SOFTWARE TOOLS

Expert system development Software tools

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

Most expert systems are developed via specialized software tools called shells. Shells provide framework to
produce an expert [Link] the knowledge base and rules are simply added to this frame work.
These shells come equipped with an inference mechanism (backward chaining, forward chaining, or both), and
require knowledge to be entered according to a specified format.
They typically come with a number of other features, such as tools for writing hypertext, for constructing friendly
user interfaces, for manipulating lists, strings, and objects, and for interfacing with external programs and
databases.
These shells qualify as languages, although certainly with a narrower range of application than most programming
languages.
Picking the right tool for building the expert system is an important step. Sometimes, more than one tool will be
used during the course of a project. Typically, one tool is used for prototyping, but a different tool is chosen for
large-scale development and delivery.
The expert system programing and tools simplify the job of constructing an expert system. They range from very
high-level programming language to low-level support facilities. These are divided into four major

Types of tools for expert system design

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

Programming languages for expert systems development

Most important programming languages used for expert system applications are generally either problem-oriented
languages such as FORTRAN and PASCAL, or symbol-manipulation languages such as LISP (list programming
language) and PROLOG (programming logic language). Problem oriented languages are designed for particular
classes of problems; e.g., FORTRAN has convenient features for performing algebraic calculations and is most
applicable to scientific, mathematical and statistical problem area.
Popular systems building products include Expert-Ease, ADVISE, RULEMASTER, SEEK, and RULE WRITER.
Other relevant products include KEE, KMS, RLL, SRL, SRL+ (frame-based), APES and HSRL (logic based),
ROSS,SMALLTALK, and KBS (object oriented), INTERLISP and PSL (procedure-oriented),and ARS, ART,
EXPERT, EXPERT-II, OPS5, RITA, and ROSIE (rule-based).
Expert system are typically written in languages like LISP and PROLOG or even CLIPS (C language Integrated
Production System Developed in mid 1980s). The use of these languages in the development of an expert system
simplifies the coding process. The major advantages of these languages as compared to conventional programming
languages is the simplicity of the addition, elimination or substitution of new rules and memory management
capabilities. The desirable features of these languages are:
Knowledge Representation: CLIPS provides a cohesive tool for handling a wide variety of knowledge with
support for three different programming paradigms.
object-oriented and procedural: The procedural programming capabilities provided by CLIPS are similar to
capabilities found in conventional languages such as Python, R,C, Java, Ada, and LISP.
Knowledge Engineering Languages:
A knowledge engineering language is a sophisticated tool for developing expert systems, consisting of an expert
system building language integrated into an extensive support environment. A programming language is an
artificial language development to acquire knowledge, accept/reject knowledge to control and direct the operation
of a computer.
A knowledge engineering (KE) language is a type of programming language designed to construct and debug
expert system. K.E. language provide certain faculties for building expert system; they are flexible than many
programming languages with regard to how knowledge can be represented and manipulated. Knowledge
engineering languages can be categorized as either skeletal systems or general-purpose systems. AI researchers
developed these languages expressly for building expert systems.
A skeletal knowledge engineering language is simply a stripped down expert system-that is, an expert system with
its domain-specific knowledge removed (shell), leaving only the inference engine and support facilities. The
general-purpose knowledge engineering language can handle many different problem areas such as knowledge

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

extraction, giving inference or making user interface though its use is rather tedious. These languages have a range
of generality and flexibility
System-Building Aids
The system-building aids consist of programs which help acquire and represent the domain expert‟s knowledge
and programs which help design the expert system under construction. These programs address very difficult tasks;
many are research tools just beginning to evolve into practical and useful aids, although a few are offered as full-
blown commercial systems.
Compared with programming and knowledge engineering languages, relatively few system-building aids have
been developed. Those which exist fall into two major categories; design aids and knowledge acquisition aids. The
AGE system exemplifies design aids, while TEIRSIAS, MOLE and SALT exemplify knowledge acquisition,
TIMM system construction and SEEK knowledge refinement aids.
Facilities Tool Support Environment
These are simply software packages which come with each tool to make it more user-friendly and more efficient.
Environments which can be further categorized into:
(i) Those required during the development t of the expert system programs, such as debugging aids and knowledge
base editors.
(ii) Those required to enhance the capabilities of the developed programs, such as input/output facilities and
explanation mechanism. Although few expert system tools support all these tools, they all support some of them.
These facilities are usually available as part of K.E. language and are designed to work specially with that language
KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION IN EXPERT SYSTEMS
Definition: Knowledge-representation is the field of in artificial intelligence that focuses on capturing
information about the world that can be used to solve complex problems in a particular domain such as
diagnosing a medical condition.
Knowledge and Representation are two distinct entities. They play central but distinguishable roles in
intelligent system design.
Knowledge is a description of the world. It determines a system's competence by what it knows. On the other
hand Representation is the way knowledge is encoded so that the computer can understand on how to solve
a problem. It defines a system's performance in doing something
Knowledge is a progression that starts with data which is of limited utility.
1. Data is viewed as collection of disconnected facts
Example: It is raining

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

2. By organizing or analyzing the data, we understand what the data means, and this becomes information.
It provides answers to "who" ,"what", "where", and "when".
Example: The temperature dropped 15 degrees and then it started raining
3. The interpretation or evaluation of information yield knowledge. It provides answers as "how".
Example: If the humidity is very high and the temperature drops substantially, then atmospheres is unlikely
to hold the moisture, so it rains
4. An understanding of the principles embodied within the knowledge is wisdom. It provides answers as
"why".
 Knowledge is the most abstract and exists in the smallest quantity. Knowledge itself can have levels
of abstraction: concrete (knowledge about the specific problem), domain specific (class of problems)
and abstract (many classes of problems).

Level of abstraction of knowledge from data

Reasons for knowledge Representation
Knowledge representation is crucial because problem solving requires large amount of knowledge and some
they should be mechanism for manipulating that knowledge into computer understandable form.
How do we represent what we know?
Representing knowledge requires an analysis to distinguish between knowledge “how” and knowledge “that.
Knowing " how to do something". e.g. "how to drive a car" is a Procedural knowledge
Knowing "that something is true or false". e.g. "that is the speed limit for a car on a motorway" is a Declarative
knowledge.
Types of Knowledge : Tacit and Explicit
The term “Tacit “corresponds to "informal" or "implicit" type of knowledge that is not codified.

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

 Exists within a human being; it is embodied.

 Difficult to articulate formally
 Difficult to communicate or share
 Hard to steal or copy.
 Drawn from experience, action, subjective insight.
On the other hand the term “Explicit” corresponds to "formal" type of knowledge that is codified.
 Exists outside a human being; it is embedded.
 Can be articulated formally
 Can be shared, copied, processed and stored
 Easy to steal or copy
 Drawn from artifact of some type as principle, procedure, process, concepts
Knowledge Typology Map
It shows the relationship between – Tacit and Explicit knowledge.
Tacit knowledge comes from "experience", "action", "subjective", "insight".
Explicit knowledge comes from "principle", procedure", "process", "concepts".
Facts: are data or instance that is specific and unique.
Concepts: are classes of items, words, or ideas that are known by a common name and share common features.
Processes: are flows of events or activities that describe how things work rather than how to do things.
Procedures: are series of step-by-step actions and decisions that result in the achievement of a task.
Principles: are guidelines, rules, and parameters that govern; principles allow to make predictions and draw
implications;
A good knowledge representation enables fast and accurate access to knowledge and understanding
of the content
METHODS OF KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION
Knowledge is represented by three methods in expert system; these are:
Production Rules
Semantic Net
Frames and Logic
Production Rules or Production System:
Rules are used to represent relationships. Rule-based knowledge representation employs
IF condition (premise or consequent) ; THEN action (goal or antecedent) statements.

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

For example,
IF the heating element glows AND the bread is always dark ; THEN the toaster thermostat is broken
When the problem situation matches the IF part of a rule, the action specified by the THEN part of the rule is
performed.
Production rules are one of the most popular and widely used knowledge representation languages.
Production rule system consists of three components.
 Working memory contains the information that the system has gained about the problem so far.
 Rule base contains information that applies to all the problems that the system may be asked to solve.
 Interpreter solves the control problem, i.e., decide which rule to execute on each selection - execute
cycle.
Advantages of Production System rule method:
Naturalness of expression
Modularity
Restricted syntax
Ability to Represent Uncertain Knowledge
Disadvantages of Production System:
Inefficient
Less expressive
Semantic Net
It is formalism/mechanism for representing information /Knowledge about objects, people, concepts and
specific relationship between them.
The syntax of semantic net is simple. It is a network of labeled nodes and links.
It is a directed graph with nodes corresponding to concepts, facts, objects etc. and arcs showing relation or
association between two concepts.
The commonly used links in semantic net are of the following types.
isa → subclass of entity (e.g., child hospital is subclass of hospital)
inst → particular instance of a class (e.g., India is an instance of country)
prop → property link (e.g., property of dog is „bark)
Representation of Knowledge in Semantic Net
Every human, animal and bird is living things that breathe and eat. All birds can fly.
All man and woman are humans who have two legs. Cat is an animal and has a fur.
All animals have skin and can move. Giraffe is an animal who is tall and has long legs.

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

Parrot is a bird and is green in color

Inheritance in Semantic Net
-Inheritance mechanism allows knowledge to be stored at the highest possible level of abstraction which reduces
the size of knowledge base.
It facilitates inference of information associated with semantic nets.
It is a natural tool for representing taxonomically structured information and ensures that all the members
and sub-concepts of a concept share common properties.
It also helps us to maintain the consistency of the knowledge base by adding new concepts and members
of existing ones.
- Properties attached to a particular object (class) are to be inherited by all subclasses and members of that class.
SEMANTIC NET DIAGRAM REPRESENTATIONS
A Semantic Network (Semantic Net) is a graphical representation of knowledge that shows concepts
(nodes) and their relationships (edges) in a structured way. It is widely used in artificial intelligence,
natural language processing, and expert systems for representing meaning.
A semantic net consists of:
Nodes → Represent concepts or entities (e.g., "Dog", "Mammal", "Barks").
Edges (Links) → Represent relationships between concepts (e.g., "is a", "has", "can").
Types of Relationships in a Semantic Network:
Relationship Meaning Example
Is-a Shows classification “Dog is a Mammal”
Has –a Shows attributes “Car has a Engine”
Part-of Shows component relationship “Wheel is part of car”
Can-do Shows actions/abilities “Birds can Fly”

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

SEMANTIC NETWORK REPRESENTATIONS

Animal classifications
Goal: represent knowledge about animals

Explanation
 “Dog is a Mammal”
 “Parrot is a Bird”
 “Parrot can Fly”
 “Dog can Bark”
Advantages of Semantic nets
 Easy to visualize
 Formal definitions of semantic networks have been developed
 Related knowledge is easily clustered.
 Efficient in space requirements
 Objects represented only once
 Relationships handled by pointers
Disadvantages of Semantic nets
 Inheritance (particularly from multiple sources and when exceptions in inheritance are wanted) can cause
problems.
 Facts placed inappropriately cause problems.
 No standards about node and arc values
Frame
 Frame is a semantic net with properties
 It represents general concept or specific entry
 Frames represent objects as sets of slot/filler pairs
 Object can contain programs as well as data (if-needed, if-added, if-removed).

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

 The utility of frames lies in hierarchical frame system and inheritance.

 This makes it easy to construct and manipulate a complex knowledge base.
 Frames are implicitly associated with one another because value of a slot can be another frame
There are three components of a frame
 Frame name
 Attributes (slots)
 Values (Fillers)
- Fillers can be links to other frames
Advantages
 Domain knowledge model reflected directly
 Support default reasoning
 Efficient
 Support procedural knowledge
Disadvantages
 Lack of semantics
 Expressive limitations
EXPERT SYSTEMS PARADIGMS/CLASSES OF EXPERT SYSTEM.
Introduction
According to the working principle, the expert system can be sorted into four classes: the Rule-Based Expert
System, the Frame-Based Expert System, the Fuzzy Logic-Based Expert System and the Expert System Based
on Neural Network.
The rule-based expert system
The Rule-Based Expert System: is the earliest type of expert systems and the most common way for
researchers to build expert system. The expert system, which is completed by production rules, has been
integrated into various research areas to help researchers solve all kinds of problems with pre-input
knowledge.
A rule-based expert system is an expert system which works as a production system in which rules encode
expert knowledge. Most expert systems are rule-based. It is an expert system based on a set of rules that a
human expert would follow in diagnosing a problem. A classic example of a rule-based system is the domain-
specific expert system that uses rules to make deductions or choices. For example, an expert system might
help a doctor choose the correct diagnosis based on a cluster of symptoms, or select tactical moves to play a
game.

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

The structure of the expert system is usually composed of three parts, including production rule, database
and control strategy.
Production rule is a "conditional + result" structure of the statement. For example, the condition: "if a species
is a dinosaur", the result: "then the species is a reptile". If the condition in the statement is met, the result
of the rule can be executed.
The database is responsible for storing the conditions and results in the production rule statement. When the
production rule is executed, the corresponding condition is called from the database and the rule result is put
into the database as a condition for other rules.
The role of the control strategy is to explain how to apply the rules, that is, in the process of solving the
problem to select the appropriate rules. The process from selecting rules to performing operations is usually
the case that a problem contains several conditions, looking for matching conditions from the database, and
finding the rules for the corresponding conditions. When more than one condition is matched, you need to
sort the strategy to decide which rule to use first.
After the rule is selected, the operation (result) section of the rule is executed. The operation of the control
strategy is usually performed in a module ("inference engine"). The inference process of the inference engine
can be divided into both forward and reverse.
The Rule-based Expert System has many advantages. Using the "condition - outcome" statement to express
knowledge rules is very natural for humans. At the same time, in the Rule-based Expert System, knowledge
and reasoning are stored and processed separately, in line with people's daily habits. However, some
shortcomings also hindered the further development of such expert system.
For example, when a rule matches a condition, the expression of the statement must be written strictly in
accordance with the statement in the database, even if the relative subtle differences are rejected because of
the matching accuracy requirements.
In addition, the speed of the Rule-based Expert System is not dominant compared to other types of expert
systems, since the entire rule set in the database needs to be scanned when a rule is used.
The structure of a rule-based expert system is shown in diagram below. The developer interface usually
includes knowledge base editors, debugging aids and input/output facilities. All expert system shells provide
a simple text editor to input and modify rules, and to check their correct format and spelling. Structure of
rule-based expert system structure of a rule-based expert system

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

structure of a rule-based expert system

THE FRAMEWORK –BASED EXPERT SYSTEMS

Frame-based expert system: A frame is a data structure with typical knowledge about a particular object or
concept. Each frame has its own name and a set of attributes associated with it. Name, weight, height and
age are slots in the frame Person. Model, processor, memory and price are slots in the frame Computer. Each
attribute or slot has a value attached to it. Frames provide a natural way for the structured and concise
representation of knowledge.
A frame provides a means of organizing knowledge in slots to describe various attributes and characteristics
of the object. Frames are an application of object-oriented programming for expert systems. The concept
of a frame is defined by a collection of slots. Each slot describes a particular attribute or operation of the
frame. Slots are used to store values. A slot may contain a default value or a pointer to another frame, a set of
rules or procedure by which the slot value is obtained. Frames includes information about how to use the
frame, information about expectations (which may turn out to be wrong), and information about what to do if
expectations are not confirmed, and so on.
Frame-based systems are knowledge representation systems that use frames, as their primary means to
represent domain knowledge. Knowledge is organized in the form of chunks called frames. These frames are

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

supposed to capture the essence of concepts or stereotypical situations. For example, being in a living room
or going out for dinner, by clustering all relevant information for these situations together.
What Are Frames in AI?
Frames are data structures used in AI to represent stereotypical situations or scenarios. They encapsulate
information about objects, events, and their interrelationships within a particular context. Each frame consists
of a set of attributes and values, forming a template for understanding specific situations.
For instance, a "restaurant" frame might include attributes such as "menu," "waitstaff," and "tables," each
with its own set of details.
KEY COMPONENTS OF FRAMES
Frames are essential for structuring knowledge in AI, and understanding their key components helps in
effectively utilizing [Link] are the main components of frames, along with examples to illustrate their use:
1. Slots
Slots are attributes or properties of a frame. They represent the different aspects or characteristics of the
frame's concept. Example: For a "Person" frame, slots might include:
Name: The individual's name
Age: The individual's age
Occupation: The individual's profession
Address: The individual's home address
2. Facets
Facets provide additional details or constraints for slots, defining acceptable values or specifying how slots
should be [Link]: For the "Age" slot in the "Person" frame:
Type: Integer
Range: 0 to 120
Default Value: 30
3. Default Values
Default values are predefined values assigned to slots if no specific value is provided. They offer a baseline
that can be overridden with more specific information.
Example: In a "Car" frame:
Make: Default value could be "Unknown"
Model: Default value could be "Unknown"
Year: Default value could be the current year

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

4. Procedures
Procedures are methods or functions associated with frames that define how the information within the frame
should be processed or [Link]: In an "Account" frame:
Procedure: CalculateInterest - A method to compute interest based on the account balance.
EXAMPLE OF A COMPLETE FRAME
Let’s construct a complete frame for a "Book" in a library management system:
Frame Name: Book
Slots: Title: "To Kill a Mockingbird"
Author: "Harper Lee"
Publication Year: 1960
ISBN: "978-0-06-112008-4"
Genre: "Fiction"
Facets: Publication Year:
Type: Integer
Range: 1450 to current year (reasonable range for publication years)
ISBN: Format: 13-digit number
Default Values:
Genre: "Unknown" (if not specified)
Procedures:
CheckAvailability: A method to check if the book is currently available in the library.
UpdateRecord: A method to update the book’s record when it is borrowed or returned.
Summary

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

Structure of a Frame
A frame typically consists of:
Frame Name – A unique identifier for the frame.
Slots – Attributes describing the entity (e.g., color, size, price).
Facets – Additional details about slots (default values, constraints, etc.).
Inheritance – Frames can inherit properties from parent frames (hierarchical organization).
Procedural Attachments – Rules or procedures triggered when accessing or modifying the frame.
FUZZY LOGIC AND NEURAL-BASED EXPERT SYSTEMS
The fuzzy theory allows people to use mathematical tools to deal with the non-precise phenomenon in the real
world.
In the Fuzzy Logic-Based Expert System, the fuzzy logic is the basis of expert system reasoning. This kind
of reasoning method uses fuzzy rule as a prerequisite, and uses fuzzy language rule to deduce an approximate
fuzzy judgment conclusion. The fuzzy language rules include the Generalized Modus Ponens (GMP) and the
Generalized Modus Tollens (GMT).

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

GENERALIZED MODUS PONENS (GMP)

Generalized modus ponens (GMP) is also known as “the law of detachment” is a form of logical argument
where if the premises are true, the conclusion must also be true.
The general form of modus ponens is
1. If P, then Q
2. P.
3. Therefore, Q
Examples
1. If it raining, then the ground will be wet
2. It is raining
3. Therefore, the ground will be wet
Example 2.
1. If a person is a teacher, then they work in education.
2. Mary is a teacher
3. Therefore, Mary works in education.
Example 3
1. If a person studies hard, then they will pass the exam
2. A person studies hard
3. Therefore, they will pass the exam
Example 4
Given Rule:
IF a patient has a high fever, THEN they may have the flu.
Observed Fact:
The patient has a moderate fever.
Conclusion Using GMP:
The patient may have a mild flu.
GENERALIZED MODUS TOLLENS (GMT).
Generalized modus tollens (GMT) extends the classical modus tollens by applying in the same principle to
more complex logical statements.
The basic form of modus tollens is
1. If P, the Q

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

2. Not Q
3. Therefore, not P.
GMT deals with more complex logical logical structures:
Examples
1. If P, then Q(where P and Q can be complex statements)
2. Not Q.
3. Therefore, not P
Example 1:
1. If the sky is clear (P) then it is not raining (Q)
2. It is raining (Not Q)
3. Therefore, the sky is not clear (Not P)
Example 2.
1. If Jane is a vegetarian (P), then she does not eat meat (Q)
2. Jane is eating meat (Not Q)
3. Therefore, Jane is not a vegetarian (Not P)
Medical diagnosis example
1. If a patient has a disease X(P),then they will test positive for marker Y(Q)
2. The patient test negative for marker Y (Not Q)
3. Therefore, the patient does not have disease X( Not P)
NB: The test for marker Y is used to help rule out disease X. if patient does not test positive for marker Y. It
suggests that they do not have disease X
EXPERT SYSTEM BASED ON NEURAL NETWORK
The neural network or the artificial neural networks (ANN) are a biologically-inspired set of models that
facilitate computers learning from observed data. The biological neurons are the basic motivation for the
development of artificial neural networks. The brain has an estimated 100 billion neurons, each neuron has
an average of 10 thousand connections that directly link it to other neurons.
Electrical impulses transmitted over these connections create the interconnections in the brain; this web of
interconnections means that activation of one neuron can influence an average of 10,000 neurons, creating an
immense number of “on/off” patterns. An artificial neural network (ANN) is an information-processing
system that adopts the neural structure of the human brain for analyzing data, finding patterns, classification,
and prediction through a learning process using a series of mathematical equations.

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

In the neural network, knowledge is no longer transformed into explicit rules by manual processing, but is
automatically acquired by the learning algorithm and produces its own implicit rules. Compared with the
traditional expert system, the neural network has more powerful function: it is more efficient than the
traditional serial operation; it has a certain degree of fault tolerance; the weight of the neural network
connection can be changed, etc
The neural network acquires knowledge automatically through learning instances. Experts provide examples
and expectations of the solution, neural network learning algorithm constantly modify the weight
distribution of the network, achieving a stable output after training. Since the input and output of the neural
network are numerical, it is necessary to encode the instance when using the neural network to acquire the
knowledge.
The Expert System Based on Neural Network also has inherent weaknesses: the system performance is limited
by the training sample set. In the case of improper sample set selection or too little sample, the neural
network‟s induction reasoning ability is very poor. In addition, the neural network is unable to explain its
own reasoning process and the significance of storing knowledge, because its model is based on human
superficial neural activity. Different models can be applied to specific requirements of the expert system.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN SELECTING AN EXPERT SYSTEMS

Key factors to consider include: the problem domain suitability, expertise of the knowledge base, quality of the
inference engine, user interface design, explanation capabilities, data quality, maintainability, scalability,
cost, and vendor support; ensuring the system aligns with the specific needs of the problem you are trying to
solve and has the necessary features to provide accurate and reliable results.
Key aspects to evaluate:
 Problem Domain suitability: Problem fit: Does the expert system effectively address the specific
problem within your domain? And Knowledge depth: How comprehensive and accurate is the
knowledge base related to your area of expertise?
 Inference Engine: Reasoning methods: Does the system use appropriate reasoning techniques like
forward chaining, backward chaining, or hybrid approaches based on your problem needs?
 Conflict resolution: How does the system handle situations where multiple rules apply to a problem?
 Knowledge Acquisition and Maintenance: Ease of updating: How easy is it to add, modify, or delete
knowledge within the system to reflect changes in the domain? Expert involvement: How well does the
system facilitate knowledge elicitation from domain experts?

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

 User Interface: Intuitive design: Is the interface user-friendly and easy to navigate for both expert and
non-expert users? Input validation: Does the system provide checks to ensure accurate data input?
 Explanation Capabilities: Transparency: Can the system clearly explain its reasoning process and
decision-making behind a conclusion? User understanding: Does the explanation module provide
understandable justifications for its outputs?
 Technical Considerations: Scalability: Can the system handle increasing complexity or data volume in
the future? Integration capabilities: Can the system integrate with other existing systems or data sources?
 Performance: How efficient is the system in terms of processing speed and response time?
 Vendor and Support: Reputation: Does the vendor have a proven track record in developing reliable
expert systems? Training and support: Is adequate training and technical support available to assist with
implementation and maintenance?
CURRENT TRENDS IN EXPERT SYSTEMS/EXPERT SYSTEM APPLICATIONS
Expert systems are evolving rapidly driven by advancement in AI, Machine learning and data analytics.
 Integration with AI and machine learning: modern expert systems are increasingly incorporating AI and
machine learning algorithms to enhance their decision-making capabilities .this allows them to learn from
new data and improve their performance overt time
 Cloud-Based solutions: The adoption of cloud computing has enabled expert systems to scale more
efficiently and provide real-time insights and recommendations
 Explainable A.I : There is a growing emphasis on making expert systems more transparent and
interpretable allowing users to understand the reasoning behind their decisions
 Natural Language Processing (NLP): Expert systems are leveraging to understand and process human
language making them more user friendly and accessible.
EXPERT APPLICATIONS
 Security and privacy: With the increasing reliance of digital systems expert applications are focusing on
enhancing security and privacy measures to protect sensitive data.
 Advanced computing : The use of advanced computing technologies such as quantum computing and
edge computing is enabling expert applications to process large volumes of data more efficiently
 AI-Augmented Development: AI tools are being used to assist developers in creating more efficient and
robust applications automating repetitive tasks and optimizing code.
 Predictive Analytics: Expert applications are utilizing predictive analytics to forecast trends, identify
potential issues and make data-driven decisions

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951

COMP 424 EXPERT SYSTEMS NOTES

LECTURER NAME: NGETICH JK 0720-254951/0780254951