Edexcel IGCSE Biology Your notes

Genetic Modification (Genetic

Engineering)
Contents
The Process of Genetic Modification
Manufacturing Human Insulin
GM Plants & Food Production
Transgenic

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The Process of Genetic Modification
Your notes

Restriction Enzymes
Genetic modification involves the transfer of a gene or section of DNA from one
organism into the DNA of another organism
To begin this process, first the gene that is to be inserted is located in the original
organism
Restriction enzymes are used to cut the required gene out of the DNA
Different types of restriction enzymes cut the DNA in different locations (they target
different sequences of DNA). This means that specific enzymes can be selected that
will cut out the required piece of DNA
Cutting DNA with restriction enzymes results in pieces of DNA with ‘sticky ends’
Sticky ends are short sections of single-stranded DNA; they are 'sticky' because
they will pair together with another sticky end that contains complementary bases
A bacterial plasmid is cut by the same restriction enzyme
This ensures that the base pairs of the two sticky ends are complementary to each
other, meaning that they will 'stick' together

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 Your notes

Restriction enzymes cut DNA strands at specific sequences to form ‘sticky ends’
The plasmid and the isolated gene are joined together by DNA ligase enzyme
If two pieces of DNA have complementary sticky ends, DNA ligase will link them to
form a single, unbroken molecule of DNA

Examiner Tips and Tricks

To make it easier to remember you should think of restriction enzymes as DNA
scissors and ligase as DNA glue, cutting and sticking the DNA fragments as part of
genetic modification.

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Vectors & Recombinant DNA
Your notes
Plasmids and viruses can act as vectors for genetic engineering
They take up pieces of DNA and then insert this recombinant DNA into other cells
Viruses transfer DNA into human cells or bacteria
Plasmids transfer DNA into bacteria or yeast

DNA ligase is used to join two separate pieces of DNA together

The genetically engineered plasmid is inserted into a bacterial cell
When the bacteria reproduce the plasmids are copied as well and so a recombinant
plasmid can quickly be spread as the bacteria multiply and they will then all express the
gene and make the human protein
The genetically engineered bacteria can be placed in a fermenter to reproduce quickly
in controlled conditions and make large quantities of the human protein

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 Manufacturing Human Insulin
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Manufacturing Insulin
The gene for human insulin can be inserted into bacteria which then produce human
insulin
The insulin can be collected and purified for medical use to treat people with diabetes

The process of producing insulin from GM bacteria

The gene for insulin production is located within a human chromosome
Restriction enzymes are used to isolate or ‘cut out’ the human insulin gene, leaving it
with ‘sticky ends’ (a short section of unpaired bases)
A bacterial plasmid is cut by the same restriction enzyme leaving it with corresponding
sticky ends (plasmids are circles of DNA found inside bacterial cells)
The plasmid and the isolated human insulin gene are joined together by DNA ligase
enzyme
If two pieces of DNA have matching sticky ends (because they have been cut by
the same restriction enzyme), DNA ligase will link them to form a single, unbroken
molecule of DNA
The genetically engineered (recombinant) plasmid is inserted into a bacterial cell
When the bacteria reproduce, the plasmids are copied as well and so a recombinant
plasmid can quickly be spread as the bacteria multiply. All the new bacteria will express
the human insulin gene and make the human insulin protein
The genetically engineered bacteria can be placed in a fermenter to reproduce quickly
in controlled conditions and make large quantities of the human protein

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 Your notes

Production of human insulin

Bacteria are extremely useful for genetic engineering purposes because:
They contain the same genetic code as the organisms we are taking the genes
from, meaning they can easily ‘read’ it and produce the same proteins

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 There are no ethical concerns over their manipulation and growth (unlike if animals
were used, as they can feel pain and distress)
Your notes
The presence of plasmids in bacteria, separate from the main bacterial
chromosome, makes them easy to remove and manipulate to insert genes into
them and then place back inside the bacterial cells

Examiner Tips and Tricks

In an exam you may be asked to apply your knowledge of genetic modification to a
new scenario so it is important to understand how the steps of this process can be
applied to real life scenarios like producing insulin.

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 GM Plants & Food Production
Your notes

Genetic Engineering: Crops

Genetic modification (also called genetic engineering) is the process of inserting
foreign DNA into the genome of an organism
In plants, this is usually done to improve food production in some way
Genetically modified (GM) plants are plants that have had foreign genes (DNA) inserted
into their genome to give them new traits, such as resistance to pests or herbicides,
improved nutrition, or drought tolerance.
Examples:
Crop plants, such as wheat and maize, have been genetically modified to contain a
gene from a bacterium that produces a poison that kills insects, making them
resistant to insect pests such as caterpillars. This can improve crop yields
Crop plants have also been genetically modified to make them resistant to certain
herbicides (chemicals that kill plants), meaning that when the herbicide is sprayed
on the crop it only kills weeds and does not affect the crop plant
Some crops have been genetically modified to produce additional vitamins and
improved nutritional value, e.g. ‘golden rice’ contains genes from another plant
and a bacterium which make the rice grains produce a chemical that is turned into
vitamin A in the human body, which could help prevent deficiency diseases in
certain areas of the world
Some crops have been genetically modified to be drought-resistant (to grow
better in very dry conditions). This can also improve crop yields
Concerns about GM crops include the effect on populations of wildflowers and insects
Some people feel the effects of eating GM crops on human health have not been fully
explored

Advantages & disadvantages of GM crops table

Advantages Disadvantages

Reduced use of chemicals such as Increased costs of seeds – companies that make GM
herbicides and pesticides – better seeds charge more for them to cover the cost of
for the environment developing them. This can mean smaller, poorer
farmers cannot compete with larger farms

Cheaper / less time-consuming Increased dependency on certain chemicals, such as

for farmers the herbicides that crops are resistant to – often
made by the same companies that produce the seed
and more expensive to buy

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Increased yields from the crops as Risk of inserted genes being transferred to wild
they are not competing with plants by pollination, which could reduce the
Your notes
weeds for resources or suffering usefulness of the GM crop (e.g., if weeds also gain
from pest damage the gene that makes them resistant to herbicide)

Reduced biodiversity as there are fewer plant

species when herbicides have been used – this can
impact insects and insect-eating birds

Some research has shown that plants that have had

genes inserted into them do not grow as well as non-
GM plants

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Transgenic
Your notes

Transgenic: Definition
Genetic modification (or genetic engineering) is the process of artificially altering the
DNA of an organism to give it new traits
Scientists can combine DNA from different sources to change an organism's genome
Any organism that has had new genetic material introduced is a genetically modified
organism (GMO)
Transgenic refers specifically to the transfer of genetic material from one species to a
different species
An organism containing DNA from a different species is called a transgenic organism
All transgenic organisms are GMOs but not all GMOs are transgenic
For example, a plant modified with DNA from the same species is a GMO but not
transgenic
For a plant to be transgenic, it would have to be modified with DNA from a different
species

Examiner Tips and Tricks

If you are asked to "state what is meant by the term transgenic" in your exam, you
should state that transgenic means the transfer of genes (or alleles or DNA) between
different species.

You must be clear that the genetic information has been transferred from one
species to another species.

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