1

EXPERIMENT – 1
Objective
To study the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the
current (I) passing through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph
between V and I.
Apparatus/Materials Required
A resistor of about 5 ohm, an ammeter (0-3A), a voltmeter (0-10V), dry cells of
1.5V (or a battery eliminator), a plug key, connecting wires and a piece of sand
paper.
Theory
Electric Current: Flow of electric charge through a conductor produces
current. The current in an electric circuit is measured by an ammeter.
Potential Difference: The amount of work done to move a unit positive charge
from one point to another point in an electric circuit is called potential
difference, between those two points. The potential difference is measured by
voltmeter.
Ohm’s Law: The potential difference (V) across the ends of a conductor in an
electric circuit is directly proportional to the current (I) flowing through it,
provided that its physical conditions like temperature etc. do not change.

Or

Or
Observations and Calculations
(i) Least count of the ammeter = ………… A
(ii) Least count of the voltmeter = ……………V
S. Potential difference Current (I) in amp
No. (ohm)
1.
2.

2
3.
4.
5.

Results and discussions

1. The value of resistance R of the resistor obtained from the calculations
and obtained from the graph is approximately same.
2. The graph between V and I is a straight line passing through origin. This
verifies the Ohm’s law.
Precautions
1. The connecting copper wires should be thick.
2. The ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter should be
connected in parallel with the resistor.

3
 EXPERIMENT – 2(a)
Objective
Determination of the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in
series.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Dry cells of 1.5V each, plug key, a voltmeter (0–15.V), an ammeter (0–1.5A)
connecting wires, two resistors, rheostat.
Theory
The equivalent resistance of the series combination of resistors equals to the
sum of the resistance of individual resistors. i.e.

Observations and Calculations

(i) Least count of the ammeter = ………… A
(ii) Least count of the voltmeter = ……………V
S. Potential difference (V) Current (I) in Mean R
No. in volt amp (ohm)
(ohm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

4
Mean equivalent resistance
Results / Conclusion
Resistance , Resistance ,
Equivalent resistance ,
Experimental value of equivalent resistance of series combination of and
is in close agreement with theoretical value. Which verifies the law of series
combination, i.e. .
Precautions
1. The ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter should be
connected in parallel with the resistor.
2 The key must be disconnected when circuit is not in use. Current would
cause heating in the circuit which may affect the resistance of resistor.

5
 EXPERIMENT – 2(b)
Objective
Determination of the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in
parallel.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Dry cells of 1.5 V each, plug key, a voltmeter (0-1.5V), an ammeter (0-1.5A)
connecting wires, two resistors, rheostat.
Theory
The equivalent resistance of three resistors of resistance and

connected in parallel is given by .

Observations and Calculations
(i) Least count of the ammeter = ………… A
(ii) Least count of the voltmeter = ……………V

S. Potential difference (V) Current (I) in Mean R

No. in volt amp (ohm)
(ohm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6
Mean equivalent resistance
Results / Conclusion
Resistance , Resistance ,

Equivalent resistance or
Experimental value of equivalent resistance of series combination of and
is in close agreement with theoretical value. Which verifies the law of series

combination, i.e.
Precautions
1. The ammeter should be connected in series and voltmeter should be
connected in parallel with the resistor.
2 The key must be disconnected when circuit is not in use. Current would
cause heating in the circuit which may affect the resistance of resistor.

7
 EXPERIMENT – 3(a)
Objective
To determine the focal length or concave mirror by obtaining image of a distant
object.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Given concave mirror, metre scale, screen and mirror stand.
Theory
Mirror is a polished smooth surface that forms images by reflection. Mirrors
are of two types.
(1) Plane mirror, (2) Spherical mirror.
Spherical Mirror: Every spherical mirror is a part of hollow sphere which is
polished (silvered) on its inner or outer side. Spherical mirrors are of two types:
(a) Concave mirror: In case of cancave mirror polishing is done on outer
surface of the sphere.
(b) Convex mirror: In case of convex mirror polishing is done on the inner
side of the sphere.
Focus and Focal Length
Rays coming parallel to the principal axis after reflection from the mirror
actually converges to a point on the principal axis (in case of concave mirror) or
appears to diverge from a point on principal axis (convex mirror) called focus F.
the distance between pole and focus is called focal length f.
Observations and Calculations
S. Position of the concave Position of the screen Focal length of
No. mirror (a) (b) concave mirror (b – a)
1.

2.

3.

8
4.

5.

Average focal length of the concave mirror

Results
The approximate focal length of the concave mirror is …………. Cm.
Precautions
1. The reading of position of mirror and screen must be taken carefully.
2. The reading should be taken only when a clear and well defined image of
distant object is obtained on screen.

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 EXPERIMENT – 3(b)
Objective
To determine the focal length or concave mirror by obtaining image of a distant
object.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Given concave mirror, metre scale, screen and mirror stand.
Theory
First focus and first focal length
It is a point on principal axis such that rays diverging from it (in case of convex
lens) or rays converging to it (in case of concave lens) become parallel to
principal axis after refraction through lens.
Observations and Calculations
S. Position of the concave Position of the screen Focal length of
No. mirror (a) (b) concave mirror (b – a)
1.

2.

3.

Average focal length of the concave mirror

Results
The approximate focal length of the concave mirror is …………. cm.
Precautions
1. The lens should be held parallel to screen.
2. The reading of position of lens and screen must be taken carefully.

10
 EXPERIMENT – 4
Objective
Tracing the path of ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for
different angles of incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of
refraction, angle of emergence and to analyse results.
Apparatus/Materials Required
A rectangular glass slab, drawing board, drawing pins, A4 size white sheet of
paper, alpins, protractor, a scale and a pencil, eraser etc.
Theory
Laws of Refraction: Refraction of light takes place under following two laws:
(a) The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.
(b) Sine of angle of incidence bears a constant ratio with sine of angle of
refraction.

i.e.,
Observations and Calculations
S. Angle of Angle of Angle of
No. incidence (i) refraction (r) emergence (e)
1. 30º
2. 40º
3. 50º
4. 60º

Results
(i) The path of ray of light passing through a glass slab is shown in ray
diagram drawn.
(ii) the incident ray and emergent ray are parallel to each other but they are
laterally displaced.
(iii) Angle of incidence is equal to angle of emergence.
Precautions

11
1. The glass slab should be of uniform thickness.
2. Angles should be measured accurately.

12
 EXPERIMENT – 5
Objective
Tracing the path of rays of light through a glass prism and to measure the
angle of deviation.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Glass prism, drawing board, white sheet of paper, drawing pins, alpins, a
measuring scale, a protractor, pencil etc.
Theory
A prism is a transparent medium such as glass bounded by two plane surfaces
inclined to each other at an angle, called refracting angle.
The two surfaces are called refracting faces.
A is also called angle of prism.
Observations and Calculations
S. Angle of incidence (i) Angle of deviation ( )
No.
1. 30º
2. 40º

Results
(i) The path of a ray of light passing through a glass prism is shown by the
ray PQRS.

Precautions
1. During the experiment the position of prism should not be disturbed.
2. The pins fixed on the paper must be vertical.

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 EXPERIMENT – 6
Objective
To find the pH of the following samples by using pH paper/universal
indicators:
(i) Dilute hydrochloric acid solution (HCl)
(ii) Dilute sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH)
(iii) Dilute ethanoic acid solution (CH3COOH)
(iv) Leman juice
(v) Water (H2O)
(vi) Dilute sodium bicarbonate solution (NaHCO3)
Apparatus/Materials Required
Test tubes, test tube stand, glass rod or a dropper, white glazed tile, pH paper
or universal indicator, distilled water, given samples etc.
Theory
The pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm to the base 10 of the
hydrogen ion concentration (H+) in moles per litre.
pH = –log[H+]
If pH = 7, it indicates that it is a neutral solution.
For acidic solution pH < 7, i.e., [H+] > 1 × 10–7 M
For basic solution pH > 7, i.e. [H+] > 1 × 10–7 M
Observation Table
Test Sample Colour Produced Approximate pH
Tube
A Dilute hydrochloric
acid solution
B Dilute sodium
hydroxide solution
C Dilute ethanoic acid
solution

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D Lemon Juice

E Water

F Dilute sodium
bicarbonate solution

Results
1. The pH values of dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute solution of ethanoic acid
and lemon juice are less than 7. Therefore, these have acidic character.
2. The pH values of dilute solution of sodium hydroxide and dilute solution
of sodium bicarbonate are more than 7. Therefore, these have basic
character.
3. The pH value of water is 7, Therefore, it has neutral character.
Precautions
1. Glass rod used for one sample should be used for other sample only after
washing with water.
2. Wash the test tubes thoroughly with distilled water, before use.

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 EXPERIMENT – 7 (a)
Objective
To study the properties of acids (HCl) by their reactions with
(a) Litmus solutions (Blue/Red),
(b) Zinc metal
(c) Solid sodium carbonate.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Test tubes, test tube stand, delivery tube with cork, litmus solutions
(blue/red), zinc metal (granulated), solid sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide
solution, distilled water, lime water etc.
Procedure
S. Experiment Observation Inference
No.
1 Take 2 mL of
hydrochloric acid in a
test tube and add 2-3
drops of blue litmus
solution into it.
2 Repeat the above
experiment with red
litmus solution.

3 Take a clean and dry

test tube and put few
pieces of Zn metal in it
and place it in the test
tube stand. Add
hydrochloric acid (HCl)
on the Zn pieces with
the help of a dropper.
4 In a clean and dry test
tube take about one
gram of sodium
carbonate (Na2CO3)

16
 and add HCL to it with
the dropper.

Results
HCl turns blue litmus red, liberate H2 with Zn metal and liberates CO2 with
Na2CO3.

Precautions
1. Take small quantity of Zn and HCl, otherwise large quantity of H2 will be
formed which may cause explosion.
2. Wash and clean the test tubes before starting the experiment.

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 EXPERIMENT – 7(b)
Objective
To study the properties of bases (dil. NaOH solution) by their reaction with
(i) Litmus solution (Blue/Red)
(ii) Zinc metal and
(iii) Solid sodium carbonate.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Test tubes, test tube stand, litmus solutions (red and blue), zinc metal, solid
sodium carbonate, and distilled water.
Procedure
S. Experiment Observation Inference
No.
Litmus Test
1. (i) Take 2 mL of
hydrochloric acid in a
test tube and add 2-3
drops of blue litmus
solution into it.
(ii) Repeat the above
experiment with red
litmus solution.

Reaction with Zinc metal

2 Pour some zinc
granules in a test tube
and pour some dilute
sodium hydroxide
solution on these zinc
granules. Observe the
changes taking place
in the test tube. Bring
a burning splinter near
the mouth of the test
tube.
Reaction with Sodium Carbonate

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3 Take about 10 mL of
dilute NaOH in a test
tube and add to it a
pinch of sodium
carbonate.

Results
Dilute NaOH (a base) changes the colour of litmus from red to blue, reacts with
zinc metal to give off hydrogen gas, and does not react with solid sodium
carbonate.
Precautions
1. Handle base with great care. It can cause severe burns if they touch the
skin.
2. Wash and clean the test tubes before starting the experiment.

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 EXPERIMENT – 8(a)
Objective
To perform and observe the following reaction and classify it into:
Combination reaction “Action of water on quicklime”.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Beaker, glass rod, quick lime (calcium oxide) and water.
Observations

Conclusion

20
 EXPERIMENT – 8(b)
Objective
To perform and observe the following reaction and classify it into:
Decomposition reaction “Action of heat of on ferrous sulphate crystals”.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Hard glass test tubes, test tube holder, test tube stand, asbestos sheet, Bunsen
burner/sprit lamp, fresh ferrous sulphate crystals.
Observations
S. No. Experiment Observation Inference
1. Note the colour of
ferrous sulphate
crystals.

2. Note the colour and

smell of
gas/vapours
evolved on heating
ferrous sulphate
crystals.
3. Note the colour of
the residue after
cooling.

Conclusion

21
 EXPERIMENT – 8(c)
Objective
To perform and observe the following reaction and classify it into:
Displacement reaction, “Iron nails kept in copper sulphate solution.”
Apparatus/Materials Required
Beakers (250 mL), sand paper, filter paper, iron nails and copper sulphate
solution.
Observations
S. No. Experiment Observation Inference
1. Note the colour of
the copper sulphate
before the
experiment.
2. Note the colour of
the iron nails before
the experiment.

3. Note the colour of

the nails after the
experiment.

4. Note the colour of

the pale green
solution after the
experiment.

Conclusion

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 EXPERIMENT – 8(d)
Objective
To perform and observe the following reaction and classify it into:
Double displacement reaction “Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium
chloride solutons”
Apparatus/Materials Required
Beakers (250 mL), test tubes, test tube stand, glass rod, barium chloride
solution, sodium sulphate solution and distilled water.
Observations
S. No. Experiment Observation Inference
1. Note the colour and
appearance of
barium chloride
solution.
2. Note the colour and
appearance of
sodium sulphate
solution.

3. Note the colour and

appearance of the
reaction mixture
after mixing of the
two solution.

Conclusion

23
Precautions
1. Test tube should be clean and dry.
2. Do not over smell the gases produced.

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 EXPERIMENT – 9(a)
Objective
To observe the action of Zn, Fe, cu and AI metals on the aqueous solution of
zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) and to arrange these metals in the decreasing order of
reactivity on the basis of the results.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Test tubes, test tube stand, distilled water, iron zinc, copper and aluminium
metals, zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) and sand paper.
Observations
S. No. Experiment Observation Inference
1. Solution of zinc
sulphate +Zn metal.

2. Solution of zinc
sulphate +Fe metal

3. Solution of zinc
sulphate +Cu metal

4. Solution of zinc
sulphate +Al metal

Results

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 EXPERIMENT – 9(b)
Objective
To observe the action of Zn, Fe, cu and AI metals on the aqueous solution of
zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) and to arrange these metals in the decreasing order of
reactivity on the basis of the results.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Test tubes, test tube stand, distilled water, iron zinc, copper and aluminium
metals, zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) and sand paper.
Observations
S. No. Experiment Observation Inference
1. Solution of zinc
sulphate +zinc
metal.
2. Solution of zinc
sulphate +iron
metal
3. Solution of zinc
sulphate +copper
metal
4. Solution of zinc
sulphate
+aluminium metal

Results

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 EXPERIMENT – 9(c)
Objective
To observe the action of Zn, Fe, cu and AI metals on the aqueous solution of
zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) and to arrange these metals in the decreasing order of
reactivity on the basis of the results.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Test tubes, test tube stand, distilled water, iron zinc, copper and aluminium
metals, zinc sulphate (ZnSO4) and sand paper.
Observations
S. No. Experiment Observation Inference
1. Solution of CuSO4 +
Zn metal

2. Solution of CuSO4 +
Fe metal

3. Solution of CuSO4 +
Cu metal

4. Solution of CuSO4 +
Al metal

Results

27
 EXPERIMENT – 9(d)
Objective
To observe the action of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals on the aqueous solution of
aluminium sulpahte (Al2SO4) and to arrange these metals in the decreasing
order of reactivity on the basis of results.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Test tubes, test tube stand, distilled water, pieces of iron, zinc, copper and
aluminium metals, aluminium sulphate solution and sand paper.
Observations
S. No. Experiment Observation Inference
1. Solution of
aluminium sulphate
+ zinc metal
2. Solution of
aluminium sulphate
+ iron metal
3. Solution of
aluminium sulphate
+ copper metal
4. Solution of
aluminium sulphate
+ aluminium metal
Results

Precautions
1. Clean the metal piece with sand paper before the experiment.

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 EXPERIMENT – 10
Objective
To study the following properties of acetic acid (ethanoic acid):
(i) Odour
(ii) Solubility in water
(iii) Effect on litmus
(iv) Reaction with sodium bicarbonate (or sodium hydrogen carbonate)
Apparatus/Materials Required
Test tube, test tube holder, glacial acetic acid, blue litmus, water, sodium
bicarbonate, freshly prospered limewater.
Theory
Acetic acid is a weak organic acid. It is soluble in water as it ionizes in aqueous
solution due to which it is acidic in nature. It has a typical vinegar like odour
(smell). It turns blue litmus to red.
Observation Table
S. No. Experiment Observation Inference
1. Odour
Take a small
amount of acetic
acid (1 mL) in a test
tube and smell it
carefully.
2. Solubility in Water
Take a small
amount of acetic
acid (2 mL) in a test
tube add equal
amount of water to
it and shake it
properly.
3. Effect on Litmus
(a) Take a small
amount of acetic
acid (1 mL) in a test
tube and add 2
drops of blue litmus
solution in it.

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(b) Take a small
amount of acetic
acid (1 mL) in a test
tube and add 2
drops of red litmus
solution in it.
4. Reaction with
(a) NaHCO3
Take 2-3 mL acetic
acid in a dry test
tube. Add a pinch of
solid sodium
bicarbonate to it.
(b) Pass carbon dioxide
gas through lime
water.

Results

Precautions
1. Acetic acid should be handled with care.
2. The vapours of the chemicals should not be inhaled.

30
 EXPERIMENT – 11
Objective
To study the comparative cleaning capacity of a sample of soap in soft and
hard water.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Soap, distilled water, well water or underground water, test tubes, a strip of
dirty cloth, calcium hydrogen carbonate or calcium sulphate, a physical
balance, weight box, beakers (100 mL), measuring cylinder (50 mL) and
measuring scale.
We Observe that

Conclusion
The cleaning capacity of soap is strong in soft water but it is weak in hard
water due to formation of scum.
Precautions
1. Make the clear choice of soft water and hard water.
2. The test tubes should be near and clean.

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 EXPERIMENT – 12
Objective
To prepare a temporary mount of a leaf peel to show stomata.
Apparatus/Materials Required
Compound microscope, slide cover slip, needle, dropper, blotting papers, a
razor blade, safranin, glycerine and fresh leaves of Petunia, Dianthus, Solanum
(Dicot plants) and Maize, Lily, Grass (monocot plant).
Theory
Stoma is an elliptical pore with two guard cells (kidney shaped in dicots and
dumb-bell shaped in monocots). The guard cells have thin and thick cell wall in
outer and inner surface, respectively. The guard cells are surrounded by
subsidiary cells. The opening and closing of stomatal pore is regulated by
turgidity of guard cells. When the guard cells are turgid, the stoma opens while
it closes as the guard cells become flaccid.
Observation
Under low power, the number of stomata in the microscopic field is counted. In
dicot leaves, the stomatal number is more at lower epidermis, while stomatal
distribution is almost same in monocot leaves.
Under high power, each guard cell content includes a nucleus and many
chloroplasts. The stomatal pore is formed by two guard cells.

Precautions
1. The small sized epidermal peel should be taken.
2. The epidermal peel must be from freshly plucked leaf.
3. The peel should neither allowed to dry nor be over stained.
4. The entry of air bubbles should be avoided by using the cover slip gently.

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 EXPERIMENT – 13
Objective
To show experimentally that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.
Apparatus/Materials Required
A conical flask (100 mL), a beaker (250 mL), a single bore cork, a clean delivery
(bent) tube, a small test tube, a piece of thread, a measuring scale, KOH
(Potassium hydroxide) solution, germinating gram seeds, Petroleum jelly or
Vaseline.
Procedure
1. Take about 30-40 seeds of gram and germinate these gram seeds by
placing them on moist cotton wool for 2-3 days.
2. Put the germinating seeds in a conical flask that must have little water to
moist the germinating gram seeds.
3. Fix the cork to the mouth of the conical flask.
4. Take a test tube containing KOH (Potassium hydroxide) solution (20%)
and hang it in the conical flask with the help of thread.
5. Insert one end of a clean delivery tube (U-shape glass tube) in the conical
flask through the cork.
6. Dip the other end of the delivery tube in a beaker filled with water as
shown in the above figure.
7. make the conical flask air tight by applying a thin smear of petroleum
jelly or Vaseline. It prevents leak out of evolving gas from the conical
flask during respiration.
8. Keep the complete set up undisturbed for 45 minutes in the bright
sunlight.
9. Mark the change in level of water in delivery tube.
Observation

33
Precautions
1. The experimental set-up is air tight.
2. The germinating gram seeds should be moist.
3. Fresh KOH solution should be used. It is corrosive. So handle it
carefully.

34
 EXPERIMENT – 14
Objective
To study (a) binary fission in Amoeba, (b) budding in yeast and (c) budding in
hydra with the help of prepared slides.
Apparatus/Materials Required
A compound microscope, permanent slides of binary fission in Amoeba,
budding in yeast and hydra.
Observation
(a) Binary Fission in Amoeba
Amoeba is irregular in outline and possesses a nucleus.

(b) Budding in Yeast (Saccharomyces)

o Yeast is unicellular and eukaryotic fungus belongs to Ascomycetes.
o It is a spherical or oval in shape.
o An outgrowth arises from the yeast body, it is bud. The bud forms
after nuclear division of the parent cell. As the karyokinesis
(nuclear division) completes, the developing bud forms.
o Similary a chain of buds forms and finally detaches from the
parent body to grow independently.

35
(c) Budding in Hydra
o The body is well differentiated into a head, distal end and a foot at
the end.
o An out growth (bud) grows externally on the surface of the body.
o The bud gets nutrition from the parent hydra and grows.
o The bud may split away from the parent and take up an
independent existence.

Precautions
1. Don’t change the coarse adjustment of compound microscope during
focus at high power. However, only fine adjustment should be used.

36
 EXPERIMENT – 15
Objective
To identify the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (pea, gram or red
kidney bean).
Apparatus/Materials Required
Dicot seeds like (gram, pea or red kidney bean) forceps, dissecting needle,
petridish, magnifying glass.
Observation
● A dicot seed (bean/gram) has two yellow coloured cotyledons.
● An embryo lie between two cotyledons.
● Micropyle and hilum can be clearly observed under magnifying glass.
● Plumule and radicle can be differentiate with embryonic axis, called
tigellum.
● The structure present between radicle and embryonic axis is called
hypocotyl, while the structure present between plumule and embryonic
axis is called as epicotyl.

Precautions
1. Provide excess water for seeds germination.
2. Use forcep to remove seed coat without damaging an embryo.

37