KIOT COTM 2ND Year

Chapter Three
Levelling
3.1 Introduction to Levelling

Levelling is the process of measuring vertical distances above or below a given reference surface
and a point on near or below the earth’s surface. It can also be defined as the processes of
determining elevation differences between various points on, near or below the surface of the earth.
The elevation of a point is its vertical distance above or below a reference level, called datum. The
most commonly used datum is the mean sea level (M.S.L)
Leveling is an important method of surveying for many engineering works and construction
projects. Leveling is needed for the design of highways, railways, and canals etc and for locating
the gradient lines. The results of leveling can be used to determine the catchments area, volume of
reservoir.
The vertical direction is parallel to the direction gravity at any point; it is the direction of a freely
suspended plumb-bob cord or string. The vertical distance of a point above or below a given
reference surface is called the elevation of the point. The most commonly used reference surface
for vertical distance is mean sea level (MSL). (The words altitude, height, and grade are sometimes
used in place of elevation). Vertical distances are measured by surveyors in order to determine the
elevations of points, in a process called running levels, or simply leveling.
The importance of leveling can not be over estimated with a few exceptions, it must always be
considered in every form of design and construction.
The determination and control of elevations constitute a fundamental operation in surveying and
engineering projects. Leveling provides data for determining the shape of the ground and drawing
topographic maps. The elevation of new facilities such as roads, structural foundations, and
pipelines can then be designed. Finally, the designed facilities are laid out and marked in the field by
the construction surveyor.
The surveyors’ elevation marks (such as grade stakes) severs as a reference points from which
building contractors can determine the proper slope (‘’rate of grade’’) of a road the first floor
elevation of a building, the required cut off elevation four foundation piles, the invert elevation for a
storm sewer, and so on.
This chapter covers the fundamentals of leveling, including the types and proper use of leveling
equipment, leveling field procedures and field notes, differential leveling, profile leveling, cross
section leveling and other related topics.

3.2 Basic Definitions

The following are a few introductory definitions that are necessary for the understanding of this
chapter
i. A vertical line- is the line parallel to the direction of gravity. At a particular point it is
the direction assumed by a plumb-bob sting if the plumb-bob is allowed to swing freely.
Because of the earth’s curvature, plumb-bob lines at points some distance apart are not
parallel, but in plane surveying they are assumed to be.
ii. A level surface- is a surface of constant elevation that is perpendicular to a plumb line at
every point. It is best represented by the shape that a large body of still water would take
if it were unaffected by tide.

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Figure 1
iii. The elevation of a particular point- is the vertical distance above or below a reference
level surface (normally, sea level)
iv. A level line- is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are of equal elevation.
Every element of the line is perpendicular to gravity.
v. A horizontal line- is a straight line tangent to a level line at one point.
3.3 Principle of direct levelling

When the leveling instrument has been properly levelled, the bubble tube axis and the line of sight
are horizontal and the vertical axis of the instrument is truly vertical. When the telescope of the
instrument is rotated, the line of sight remains in the horizontal plane.
In practice, the leveling instrument is set up at a convenient position, and the one staff is kept at a
point of known elevation. The reading is taken on the staff and the level of the line of sight is
determined. Now the 2nd staff is kept on the point of the unknown elevation and a reading is taken.
The level of the point is determined from the level of the line of sight already computed and from
the 2nd staff reading.

Figure 2
3.4Terms used in direct leveling
The following terms are commonly used in leveling.
1. Station. The station is the point where the staffs are held for taking reading (observation)
from a leveling instrument.
The point where the instrument is set up is not important so far the booking of the readings
in a level field book is concerned.
2. Height of the instrument. (H.I): It is the elevation of the line of sight with respect to the
datum. It should be noted that the height of instrument is not the height of the line of sight
above the ground where the leveling instrument is set up.

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3. Back sight (B.S.): It is the reading taken on a staff held at point of known elevation or at the
point whose elevation has already been determined. The back sight is usually the first
reading taken after setting up the instrument. The back sight is taken on a bench Mark
(B.M) for the first setting of the instrument and on a turning point (T.P.) for the subsequent
settings because the level of turning point can be determined before the shifting of the
instrument.
4. Fore sight (F.S.): It is the reading taken on the staff either held at the last point whose
elevation is required or held at the turning point just before shifting the instrument.
5. Turning point. (T.P.): For leveling over a long distance, the instrument has to be set up a
number of times. A turning point is the point selected on the route before shifting the
instrument. The turning point should be selected on a firm ground or rock.

Figure 3
6. Intermediate sight. (I.S.): It is the reading taken on a staff held at point whose elevations is
required, but which is not a turning point or the last point.
7. Balancing of sight: To reduce the effect of instrumental and other errors, the distance of the
point where a back sight is taken and the distance of the point where a fore sight is taken, as
measured from the instrument station, should be approximately equal. This is known as
balancing of sights.

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3.5 Levelling Instruments

3.5.1 Levels
Levels are categorized in to four groups.
1. Dumpy levels
These traditional instruments feature a rigid telescope fixed to a levelling base with foot screws and
a bubble tube for manual adjustment. They require coarse levelling before use and are sturdy for
general site work, though slower due to manual setup.

2. Tilting levels
Tilting levels allow the telescope to tilt slightly via a micrometre screw for fine horizontal
adjustments after rough levelling. This design suits uneven terrain where full re-levelling is
challenging, offering higher precision than basic dumpy levels.

3. Automatic levels
Also called auto levels, these use an internal pendulum compensator to self-level the line of sight
after rough setup, reducing errors and speeding fieldwork. Common in modern construction, they
outperform dumpy levels in efficiency and accuracy.

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4. Digital levels
Digital levels employ electronic bar-code sensors on a staff for automatic height readings, storing
data digitally with high precision (often ±0.1mm per km).Ideal for large projects requiring data
logging and minimal human error.

3.5.2 Tripods
A tripod is a three-legged stand used to support a level or other surveying instrument during field
measurements. There are two models of tripods.
(1) The extension leg tripod and
(2) The fixed leg tripod.

Fig. 5a the extension leg tripod Fig.5b Fixed leg tripod

3.5.3 Level rods (leveling staff)

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They are used to measure the vertical distance between a line of sight and a survey point and a
height different between two points.

Fig. 6 leveling staff

3.6 Preparing levels for work

1. Setting up: Set up the tripod at a convenient height and press the tripod feet firmly into the
ground. The tripod head should be approximately horizontal. Fix the instrument on it.

2. Leveling up: Level the instrument with the foot screws until the circular bubble is in the centre.
The movement of the circular bubble can be divided into two directions. One direction is parallel to
line joining any two of the foot screws. The second direction is then parallel to a perpendicular line
from the third foot screw to the line joining the two other foot screws.
Turn the instrument until the telescope axis is parallel to any two foot screws. The screws are held
by the thumb and forefinger of each hand and turned equally and simultaneously in the opposite
direction until the bubble has moved to the line AB (fig. 7a). Line AB is perpendicular to the line
through the two foot screws. By using the third screw the bubble is moved towards the centre of the
circle (fig. 7b). The leveling procedure is completed when the bubble is in the centre of the circle
(Figure 7c).

Fig.7a fig. 7b fig.7c

3. Focusing: First focus the eyepiece until the cross hairs appear sharp and clear then point the
telescope towards the object (staff) and focus until you see clearly the graduation of the staff.

3.7 Methods of Levelling

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3.7.1 Differential levelling

Differential leveling is required for the determination of the difference of elevation of two points,
which are quite apart. A number of setting ups of the instrument are required in differential leveling.
In fig. 1 BM1 represents a point of known elevation (benchmark) and BM 2 represents a benchmark to
be established some distance away. It is desired to determine the elevation of BM 2. The level is
placed in such a location that a clear rod reading is obtainable, but no attempt is made to keep on the
direct line joining BM1 and BM2. A back sight is taken on BM1. The rod-man chooses a turning
point TP1 at some convenient spot with in the range of the telescope along the general route BM 1 to
BM2. It is desirable, but not necessary, that each foresight distance as I 1–TP1 is approximately equal
to its corresponding back sight distance as BM 1-I1. The chief requirement is that the turning point
shall be a stable object at an elevation and in a location favourable to a rod reading of the required
precision. The rod is held on a turning point and a fore sight is taken. The observer then set up the
instrument at some favourable point as I 2 and takes a back sight to the rod held on the turning point
TP1. Then the rod-man establishes the second turning point TP 2 and the observer takes a fore sight.
The process is repeated until finally a foresight is taken on the terminal point BM2.
To check weather there is an error or not the leveling work should always be started from a known
point and should be finished at a known point.
The leveling field book should be checked immediately in the field.
Note: While taking the readings the staff rod has to be held vertically!

Fig. 8 Compound differentials levelling

3.7.2 Profile leveling
The process of determining the elevation of points at short measured intervals along a fixed line is
called profile leveling. The need of profile leveling arises during the location and construction of
highways, railroads, canal, and sewers.

Fig.9 illustrates the steps in levelling for profile

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The instrument is set up in some convenient location not necessarily on the line (as at I 1) and the rod
is held on benchmark (BM3). A back sight is taken and the height of instrument is obtained as in
differential leveling. Readings are then taken with the rod held on the ground at successive stations
along the line. These rod readings, being for points of unknown elevation, are foresights regardless
of whether they are in front or ahead of the level. They are frequently designated as intermediate
fore sights to distinguish them from foresights taken on turning points or benchmarks. The
intermediate foresights subtracted from the height of the instrument give ground elevations of
stations. When the rod has been advanced to a point beyond which further readings to ground points
can not be observed, a turning point (TP 1) is selected and a foresight (3.440m) is taken to establish
its elevation. The level is set up in an advanced position (I 2) and a back sight (2.988m) is taken on
the turning point (TP1) just established. Rod readings on ground points are then continued as before.

3.7.3 Reciprocal levelling

When a line of levels crosses a broad body of water it is impossible to balance the back sight and
foresight distances, it is necessary to take sights much longer than permissible. Under such a
measurement errors due to curvature and refraction become significant. To obtain the best results we
should have to use the procedure termed as reciprocal leveling.

Set up 2 set up 1
Fig. 10

The elevation of survey point A is to be determined by leveling from BM1. At a set up near BM1, a
back sight is taken on BM1 a fore sight on A. The difference in elevation is computed as (BS – FS).
Next the level is set up near point A. Assuming that atmospheric refraction remains constant during
the time between the two set ups, the correct differences in elevation is computed as the mean of the
two measured differences.

El of A El of BM1
Example:

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If a = 1.442 m
b = 1.911 m
c = 1.768 m
d = 2.325 m
And El of BM1 = 1980.40 m so:
E1A = 1980.04 – 0.513 = 1979.887m

3.7.4 Cross Sectional levelling

Cross sections are short profiles made perpendicular to the center line of a project. They provide the
information necessary for estimating quantities of earth work. There are two general types of cross-
section: the ones required for route projects such as roads and the ones required for borrow pits.

3.8 Level field books and arithmetic check

A level field book or a level book is used for booking and reducing the levels of various points on
the surface of the earth. There are a lot of methods for reducing the levels: etc. The surveyor should
select the level book according to the method of reduction he proposes to use.
The following table shows a page of the more generalized level book.

Leveling
Observer: _________Instrument:_________Project:_______Date:________ Page:______

Inter mediate
Point Back sight sight Fore sight Ah Elevation Remarks
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
BM1 1.244 1680.20
TP1 0.662
2.101
TP2 1.021
1.000
BM.2 3.221
B.S= F.S=

Steps to be followed
1. Sum up all back sight and fore sight readings

2. Calculate the difference between BS and FS (actual h)

3. Calculate all h`s following the way of subtraction indicated by an arrow.

4. Sum up all h`s

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5. Check whether h is equal to the value in step no 2 (actual h) (First check).

6. Add each h to the previous elevations.

7. At the end you will get the elevation of B.M.2

The attached level field book contains seven columns. The first column indicates the point (station)
at which the staff is placed. The second column is for the back sight readings (BS) and the fourth
column is for the fore sight readings. For the illustration of differential leveling given in section 4.6
fig.8 the back sight-reading for the station BM 1 is 1.244. The elevation of BM 1 is 1680.20m. All
the entries are shown in the field book.

3.9 Difficulties in levelling

1. Staff station above the line of sight

2. Staff station much below the line of sight

3. Staff to near the instrument

4. Leveling on summits (hill) and hollows (valley).
5. Leveling on steep slope.
6. Leveling across a pond and lake.
7. Leveling across a river.
8. Leveling across intervening wall.
3.10 Common Levelling Mistakes
1. Misreading the staff:
 Reading the wrong value on the leveling staff (e.g., reading 1.35 m instead of 1.53 m).
2. Wrong booking in the field book:
 Entering Back Sight (BS), Intermediate Sight (IS), or Fore Sight (FS) incorrectly.
3. Reading the wrong hair of the crosshair:
 Taking the reading from the top or bottom hair instead of the middle hair.
4. Staff not held vertical:

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 If the leveling staff is tilted, the reading becomes larger than the true value.
5. Instrument not properly leveled:
 If the bubble is not centered, the line of sight is not horizontal.
6. Parallax not removed:
 Not focusing the eyepiece or objective lens properly causes incorrect readings.
7. Changing points wrongly:
 Taking BS and FS on wrong points or mixing them.
8. Arithmetic mistakes:
 Errors when calculating Height of Instrument (HI) or Reduced Level (RL).
9. Wrong turning point selection:
 Choosing soft or unstable ground for the turning point causes staff movement.
10. Recording wrong units or decimal point: E.g. writing 2.5 m instead of 0.25 m.

3.11 Engineering application of Leveling

Leveling is used to determine the difference in elevation between points on the ground. It has
many important applications in engineering works.
1. Establishing Bench Marks (BM)
 To determine and fix permanent reference points with known elevations for future surveys.
2. Preparation of Contour Maps
 Used to find elevations of many points to draw contour lines for topographic maps.
3. Route Survey
 Used in planning roads, railways, canals, pipelines, and transmission lines.
4. Setting out Construction Levels
 To fix the required levels for buildings, bridges, dams, and other structures during
construction.
5. Determination of Ground Profiles
 Used to obtain longitudinal and cross sections of roads, canals, and railways.
6. Earthwork Calculation
 To determine cut and fill quantities for construction projects like highways and
embankments.
7. Drainage and Sewer Design
 Used to determine proper slope for drainage systems and sewer lines.
8. Irrigation Projects
 Used in designing canals, reservoirs, and irrigation channels.
9. Flood Control and Water Supply Projects
 Helps determine water flow direction and elevation differences.
10. Checking Settlement of Structures
 Used to monitor settlement in buildings, dams, and bridges over time.

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