KIOT COTM 2nd Year
Chapter Two
Measurement of Distance
3.1. Introduction
Every surveyor has to measure the horizontal distance between two points on the surface
of the earth. Measurement of horizontal distance or making linear measurements is
required in chain surveying, traverse surveying, and other types of surveying.
In surveying the distance between two points means a horizontal distance. When slope
distances are measured in the field, these are always reduced to the equivalent horizontal
distances for preparation of map.
There are, in general, three methods of making linear measurements:
1. Direct methods
2. Optical methods
3. E.D.M. methods
In the direct methods, the distance is actually measured in the field using a tape.
In optical methods, the distance is not actually measured the field. It is computed
indirectly (for example: stadia tachometry).
Electromagnetic Distance Measuring (E.D.M) instruments have been developed since the
60ties. Two different types are available:
1) Electro optical instruments, which use light waves for measurement of distance.
2) Microwave instruments, which use radio waves for measurement of distance.
3.2 Approximate method
The following approximate methods are commonly used in reconnaissance surveying for
the measurement of horizontal distances.
1. Pacing: A person can determine the distance walked by Counting the number of
paces made. The distance can be obtained by multiplying the number of paces by
the average length of the paces.
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2. Measuring wheel: A measuring wheel consists of a wheel mounted on a lower end
of rod about 1 m long through a fork. The upper end of the rod has a handle. The
wheel is pushed along the ground. The distance traversed is recorded on the dial
attached the wheel.
Measuring wheel
3. Speedometer: All automobiles have a speedometer to indicate the speed and the
distance travelled. If the ground is smooth, the speedometer can be used to measure
the distance.
4. Passometer
It is a pocket instrument.
It automatically records the number of paces.
It should be carried vertically, in waistcoat pocket or suspended from a button.
The mechanism being operated by motion and strain of the body.
5. Pedometer:
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It is similar to passometer
But it registers the distance walked by the persons carrying it.
The distance is read by means of an indicator.
indicator
It is fitted with a stud or knob, which when pressed release indicator to zero;
zero it may
be carried in the same way as the passometer.
3.3 Tapes
Measuring tapes can be classified into 5 types depending upon the material used in
their manufacture.
1. Liner or cloth tapes.
2. Glass-fibre tapes
3. Metallic tapes
4. Steel tapes
5. Invar tapes
a) Steel tape b) Invar tape
3.4 Taping accessories
In addition to a tape, the following small instruments and accessories are required for
the determination of the length of a line.
1. Arrows (Chain pins)
2. Pegs
3. Ranging rods
4. Plumb bobs or rod levels
1. Arrows (Chain pins): They are used to mark the position of the ends of the tape
on the ground.
2. Pegs: Wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the survey stations or the end
points of the survey line.
3. Ranging Rods: The process of locating a number of points on a long survey line is
called ranging. Ranging rods are used to locate intermediate points such that these
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points lie on the straight line joining the end stations. Ranging rods are made of
well-seasoned, straight-grained timber.
4. Plumb bobs: The plumb bob plays a very important role in surveying. As a freely
suspended plumb bob always points towards the gravity, it indicates the direction
of the vertical line. In linear measurements plumb bobs are used for measuring
distances on sloping ground.
Ranging rods hold by ranging rod tripods plumb bob
3.5 Methods of ranging
There are three Methods of ranging
1. Direct Ranging
2. Indirect (Reciprocal) ranging
3. Random line ranging
1. Direct Ranging
When the end stations are intervisible, ranging is being carried out directly.
The intermediate points are placed at distances having interval less than one tape
length.
2. Indirect Ranging
When the end stations between which a straight line is to be laid, are not intervisible,
indirect method of ranging is being adopted.
Both are visible from an intermediate position.
position
Figure below shows the field operations involved in reciprocal ranging. Let A and B
are the two end points whose distance is required to be found and are not
intervisible.
To fix the intermediate points in a straight line between these points, two more points
say C and D are chosen in such a way that D & B are visible from C and C & A from
D. Then, direct ranging is being carried out alternatively along DCA and CDB for a
number of times so that ACDB lie in a straight line.
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3. Random line ranging
When the distance between two intermediate points may be too large.
The ground may be so wooded or hilly.
3.6 Ranging out lines directly
The process of establishing intermediate points on a straight line is known as ranging out
or aligning in surveying. It is necessary to establish intermediate points on a line if the
distance is greater then one tape lengths. The ranging out ensures that the straight
distance between two points is measured.
The procedure is as follows:
Two ranging poles are set up vertically on the two ends of the line to be measured.
The surveyor stands behind one ranging pole at a distance of about 2-3 meters. The
assistant holds another ranging rod approximately on the line at a distance not greater
than one tape lengths.
By looking left and right along the set up ranging poles the surveyor directs the assistant
to move the ranging pole towards the line. The assistant has to hold the ranging pole
vertically.
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Having more than one ranging pole to be aligned, start always with the farther one to
have a good visibility.
Never take an intermediate point for ranging out a further intermediate point. If the first
intermediate point has been aligned incorrectly you would align the second one into a
wrong line.
After establishing all intermediate points the result of the ranging out has to be checked.
Therefore, sight left and right along the line. The ranging poles have to appear one after
the other in the right order that means from the nearest to the most distant one.
3.7 Taping horizontal distance over level ground
The simplest taping operation is measuring over level ground where the tape can be
stretched out while fully supported by the ground as shown in the figure below. Range
pole is set at each end of the line and the tape is unwound and laid out on the ground with
the zero ends forward. The front tape person then takes the zero end of the tape hands one
pin to the rear tape person, and moves forward along the line.
3.8 Taping horizontal distance over sloping ground
Consider two point A and B which are several tape lengths apart along a slope. The
horizontal distance between the two points can be measured by supporting the tape at the
two ends only, as shown in the figure below.
Assuming that the distance is to be measured downhill, the front tape person holds one
end of the tape at a comfortable height above the ground so that the straight line joining
the two ends are approximately level. Tension is applied and the position of the end of
the tape is transferred by means of a plumb bob to the ground. Where a point is set or on
a hard surface, a keel mark is mode. If accurate work is needed. The tape is stretched a
second time and the mean of the two measurements taken.
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3.9 Correction for systematic errors in Taping
Steel tapes are calibrated under a specific temperature and tension. Change in
temperature, tension and mode of support affect the result of taping. The errors caused by
these sources behave according physical laws and can be expressed with mathematic
expressions. They are systematic errors.
1. Correction for standard
A steel tape will normally be provided with standardizing data, for example it may be
designated as 30m long under a tension of 50N at a temperature of 20 C° when laid on the
flat. With use the tape may stretch and it is imperative that the tape is regularly checked
against a reference tape kept specifically for this purpose.
2. Correction for tension (Pull correction)
Since a steel tape is elastic to a small extend it length is changed by variation in the
tension applied. The correction, which should be applied, is
Where, P is the tension applied in the field.
Ps is the standard/ calibration tension (tape at AU: 50N)
A is the cross sectional area of the tape.
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E is Young’s modulus for the tape material (N/ mm2)
L is the observed length.
Note: The sign of the correction takes that of quantity (P-P s).To apply this correction a
tension handle is needed.
3. Correction for sag
A tape supported only at the ends will sag in the centre by an amount that is related to its
weight and the pull (tension). In the case of a long tape intermediate supports can be
used to reduce the magnitude of the correction.
The correction that is applied reduces the curved length to the chord Length.
Where , w is the weight of the tape per unit length
L is the observed length
P is the tension applied in the field.
Note: If the tape in used on a plane surface, which can be considered, flat then no
correction is applicable. To apply this correction a tension handle is needed.
4. Correction for temperature
If a tape is used at a field temperature different from the standardization temperature
then the correction is
Where,;- is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the tape material
Steel: 0.0000115 m/(m °C) and invar: 0.000001 m/(m °C)
t- is the field temperature
ts- is the standardization temperature
L- is the observed length
Note: The sign of the correction takes the sign of (t- ts).To apply this correction a
thermometer is needed.
5. Correction for slope
In surveying it is essential that horizontal lengths are determined. When a distance lies
along a uniform slope and when the difference in height between the two end points has
been determined it may be preferable to measure the distance directly (see also figure-1).
Figure-1
Afterwards the horizontal distance can be computed by applying the following
correction:
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Where, Dh- is the difference in height between the end points
S- is the measured slope distance
6. Correction to mean sea level
In the case of long lines the relationship between the length measured on the ground and
the equivalent length at mean sea level has to be considered.
In the measured length is Lm and the height of the line above datum is H then the
correction to be applied is
Exercise on basic tape measurements
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1. A base line was measured by tape suspended in catenary under a pull of 145N, the
mean temperature being 14°C. The lengths of various segments of the tape and the
difference in level of the two ends of a segment are given in table below.
Line AE Length(m) Difference in level (m)
AB 29.988 + 0.346
BC 29.895 – 0.214
CD 29.838 + 0.309
DE 29.910 – 0.106
A 30 m steel tape is standardized under a pull 95 N at 18 0C and on standardization the tape was
found to be 30.003 m .Determine the correct length of the line AE?
Use the following information
Cross-sectional area of the tape = 3.35 mm²
Mass of the tape = 0.025 kg/m
Coefficient of linear expansion = 0.9 × 10–6 per °C
Young’s modulus = 14.8 × 104 N/mm² = 14.8 × 104 MN/m²
Mean height of the line above M.S.L. = 51.76m
Radius of earth = 6371 Km
Gravitational force of attraction = 9.81 m/s²
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