KIOT COTM 2nd Year

Chapter One
1. Introduction to surveying
1.1 Introduction
This chapter will define surveying and some of the essential terms used in surveying.
Surveying may be simply defined as the art of making measurements. Surveying
involves the measurements of distances, angles and elevations. It also involves staking
out the lines and grades needed for the construction of buildings, roads, dams, and other
engineering structures. In addition to the field measurements, surveying includes the
computation of areas, volumes, and other quantities, as well as the preparation of
necessary maps and diagrams. In addition it includes the processing of converting the
measurements in to positional information such as maps and coordinates. The survey
activities are not limited to the surface of the earth but extend to the sea and deep
underground, as well as extraterrestrial space.
More precisely, Surveying can be defined as the art and science of determining the
relative positions of various points on, above or below the surface of the earth.
When we say the relative positions of points it means that determining the relative
positions of points in reference to another point or reference point/station.
For example, Adama City is found at about 100 kilometers East of Addis Ababa, again
you may say Adama University is found at about 3 km North- east of Adama City. In this
example, it is obvious that the (relative position) location of Adama city is described in
reference to Addis Ababa and that of Adama University is in reference to Adama City.

The Art and Science of Surveying

Surveying is the art and science of measuring and locating points and angles on, above,
and below the surface of the earth. In this definition, the terms “art” and “science” are
used because good surveying is both. Webster defines art as “skill acquired by
experience, study, or observation. “An example of the art of surveying is being able to
reconnoiter a site and determines the “best” instruments and methods to use to collect the
desired data. The best instruments and methods produce the required data with the least
consumption of resources. This includes determining what data needs to be collected, the
most appropriate surveying method to use, the best location of the instruments, and so on.
For professional surveyors, and for commercial construction operations, time is money.
An experienced surveyor can look at a site and determine the best method for collecting
the necessary data. This ability is an art because it cannot be learned from a textbook or
in a classroom. This “art” is developed through natural abilities and from experience.
Surveying is also a science. Webster defines science as, “knowledge covering general
truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific
method.” This definition is appropriate for many aspects of surveying. The principles and

Surveying 2018E.C
1
KIOT COTM 2nd Year

practices that have been developed to collect accurate data provide an example of the use
of science in surveying. Accurate data is valuable in surveying, while inaccurate data can
be costly because it may result in design errors. Procedures have been developed and
tested over time that, if followed, control errors. These include procedures to set up and
use the instruments, record data, and perform mathematical procedures used to complete
the calculations.
Simply stated, surveying involves the measurement of distances and angles. The
distances may be horizontal or vertical in direction. Simply, the angles may be measured
in a horizontal or vertical plane. Frequently distances are measured on a slope, but they
must eventually be converted to a corresponding horizontal distance. Vertical distances
are also called elevations. Horizontal angles are used to express the directions of land
boundaries and other lines.
There are two fundamental purposes for measuring distances and angles. The first is to
determine the relative positions of existing points or objects on or near the surface of the
earth. The second is to layout or mark the desired positions of new points or objects
which are to be placed or constructed on or near the surface of the earth. The survey
measurements must be made with precision in order to achieve a maximum of accuracy
with a minimum expenditure of time and money. Generally, the practice of surveying is
an art, because it is dependent upon the skill, judgment, and experience of the surveyor
and an applied science, because field and office procedures rely up on a systematic body
of knowledge, related primarily to mathematics and physics.
1.2 Primary Division of Surveying
Primary divisions of surveying are made on the basis whether the curvature of the earth is
considered or the earth is assumed to be a flat plane. Because of the curvature of the
earth’s surface, the measured distances on earth are actually curved. However, when the
distances are small, compared with the radius of the earth, there is no significant
difference between the curved distances and the corresponding straight – line distances,
and the curvature of the earth can be neglected.
Surveying is thus primarily divided in two types:
1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic Surveying
1. Plane surveying- is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is
neglected and it is assumed to be a flat surface. All horizontal distances and
horizontal angles are assumed to be projected on a horizontal plane. A horizontal
plane at a point is the plane, which is perpendicular to the vertical line at that point.
2. Geodetic Surveying: is the type of surveying in which the curvature of the earth is
taken in to consideration and a very high standard of accuracy is maintained. The
main objective of geodetic surveying is to determine the precise location of a system
of widely spaced points on the surface of the earth.

Surveying 2018E.C
2
KIOT COTM 2nd Year

1.3 Importance of Surveying

Surveying plays an essential role in the planning, design, layout and construction of our
physical environment and infrastructure. The term infrastructure is commonly used to
present all the constructed facilities and systems which allow human communities to
function.
Surveying is the link between design and construction. Roads, Bridges, Buildings, water
supply sewerage, drainage systems and many other essential public works, projects could
never be built without surveying technology.
Most commonly for ordinary local projects the surveying process starts with the
reconnaissance survey i.e. on arrival at the site the survey team simply walks over the
area with a view to establish the best sites for survey stations, and other purposes need to
be considered.
Next the necessary data for the project will be collected by the principle of basic
measurements in surveying, then computations of the collected data has to be done to
produce plans or topographic maps depending up on the objectives of the project. The
produced plans or maps are used for planning Engineering projects, marking boundary
corners or lines, computations of areas & volumes and other purposes.
Surveying also includes the art of setting out the new points on the ground from the plans
or maps according to the design of the project.
To summarize; the first stage in all big projects is generally to survey the area and
prepare plans or maps which will be used in the preparation of detailed drawings, design
and cost estimation of the project .After finalizing the design or detail drawing, setting
out will be done.
1.4 Classifications of Surveying
1.4 .1 Based on application area(purpose)
As we mentioned at the beginning, the two fundamentals purposes for surveying are to
determine the relative positions of existing points and to mark the positions of new points
on or near the surface of the earth .within this frame work, many different kinds of
surveys are performed. Some specific applications or types of surveys are outlined briefly
as follows:
I. Property survey
A property survey is performed in order to establish the positions of boundary lines and
property corners. It is also referred to as a land survey or a boundary survey. Property
surveys are usually performed when ever land ownership is to be transferred or when a
large tract of land is to be subdivided in to smaller parcels for development. Also before
the design and construction of any public or private land- use project can get underway, it
is necessary to accurately establish the legal boundaries of the proposed project site.
Any survey for establishing or describing land boundaries must be performed under the
supervision of a licensed land surveyor. Land surveys in urban areas must be conducted

Surveying 2018E.C
3
KIOT COTM 2nd Year

with particular care, due to the very high cost of land. In rural areas less accuracy may be
accepted. Land surveys done to actually mark property corners with permanent
monuments are sometimes informally referred to as ‘’stakeout’’ ‘’out bound’’ or ‘’bar
job’’ surveys.
II. Topographic Survey
A topographic survey is performed in order to determine the relative positions (horizontal
and vertical) of existing natural and constructed features on a tract of land. Such features
include ground elevations, bodies of water, vegetation, rock out crops, roads, buildings,
and so on.
A topographic survey provides information on the ‘’shape of the land’’ Hills, valleys,
ridges, and the general slope of the ground can be depicted graphically. The data obtained
from a topographic survey are plotted and drawn as a suitably scaled map called a
topographic map, or topo map.
The shape of the ground is shown with contours, or lines of equal elevation. Since a topo
map is always needed before the engineering and architectural design of any building or
other project can begin, a topo survey may also be referred to as a preliminary survey. Of
course an accurate property survey must always precede the topo survey, to establish the
boundaries of the project site.
III. Construction Survey
A construction survey, also called a layout or location survey is performed in order to
mark the position of new points on the ground. These new points represent the location of
building corners, road center lines, and other facilities that are to be built. These positions
are shown on a site plan, which is essentially a combination of the property survey and
topo survey, along with the newly designed facilities. This also may be called a plot plan.
A site plan shows the location dimensions which are to be measured with reference to
boundaries or other control points. Vertical heights are given by elevations. Some times
horizontal positions may be given by coordinates. Wooden stakes are used by the
surveyors to mark the positions of the building, roads, and other structures.
The wooden stakes serve as reference points for the construction contractor who actually
builds the project. They may be centerline stakes, offset stakes, or grade stakes.
Carpenters, masons, and other skilled professionals transfer measurements directly from
the survey points. The procedure of placing the markers is called staking out. Another
term used, especially for pipelines and roads, is giving line and grade.
IV. Control Survey
There are two kinds of control surveys horizontal and vertical. In a horizontal control
survey, several points are placed in the ground by the surveyor, using wooden stakes, or
more permanent markers such as iron bars and concrete monuments. These points, called
stations, are arranged throughout the site or area under study so that they can be easily
seen and surveyed. The relative horizontal positions of these points are established,

Surveying 2018E.C
4
KIOT COTM 2nd Year

usually with a very high degree of precision and accuracy; this is done using traverse,
triangulation, or trilateration survey methods.
In a vertical control survey, the elevations of relatively permanent reference points are
determined by precise leveling methods. Marked or monumental points of known
elevation are called elevation bench marks (BMs). Boundary surveys or construction
surveys can be tied in to near by control surveys stations and Bench Marks. This
minimizes the accumulation of errors and the cost of making all the measurements
precise.
V. Route Survey
A route survey is performed in order to establish horizontal and vertical control to obtain
topographic data and to lay out the positions of highways, rail ways, streets, pipelines or
any other ‘’linear’’ project. In other words, the primary aspect of a route survey is that the
project area is very narrow compared with its length, which can extend from many
kilometers and miles
VI. City surveys
These surveys are conducted within the limits of a city for urban planning. These are
required for the purpose of layout of streets, buildings, sewers, pips, etc.
VII. Mine surveys
These surveys are conducted to determine the relative positions and elevations of Mines,
shafts, bore holes etc for underground works. Mine surveys are useful to plan the working
of mines and to compute volumes of materials in mines.
VIII. Hydrographic surveys
These surveys are conducted on or near the body of water, such as lakes, rivers, bays, and
harbors.
IX. Engineering surveys
Engineering surveys are conducted to collect data for the designing and planning of
engineering works such as building, roads, bridges, dams, reservoirs, sewers and water
supply lines. These surveys generally include surveys discussed above.
X. Astronomic surveys
These surveys are conducted for the determination of latitudes, Azimuths, local time etc.
for various places on the earth by observing heavenly bodies (the sun or stars).
XI. Satellite surveys
These surveys are conducted to obtain intercontinental, interdatum and interisland
geodetic ties the entire world over by artificial earth’s satellites.
XII. Geological surveys
Geological surveys are conducted to obtain information about different strata of the
earth’s surface for geological studies

Surveying 2018E.C
5
KIOT COTM 2nd Year

1.4.2 Based on instruments used

Based on the instruments used surveys can be classified as under
i. Chain surveying : is the simplest type of surveying in which linear measurements
are taken with a chain or tape
ii. Compass surveying: In this type of surveying, the horizontal angles are measured
with the help of a magnetic compass
iii. Leveling: this is a type of survey in which a leveling Instrument is used for
determination of relative elevations (levels) of various points on, above or below
the surface of the earth
iv. Theodolite survey: In this survey Theodolite is the main instrument used. It is
used for measuring both horizontal and vertical angles.
v. Tachometric Survey: This is a rapid and economical survey by which the
horizontal distances and the difference in elevation are determined indirectly using
a Theodolite and a graduated rod.
vi. Photogrammetric survey: Photogrammetry is a science of taking measurements
with the help of photographs. Photogrammetric surveys are generally used for
topographic mapping of vast areas.

1.4.3 based on methods

 Triangulation Survey-establishment of control points using a network of triangles
with high accuracy.
 Traverse Survey-establishment of control points using a serious of lines.

1.5. Basic measurements in Surveying

Introduction as it is defined in section 1.1 generally surveying can be define as the art and
science of determining the relative position of various points on, above or below the
surface of the earth. These relative positions of points or the position of one point to
another point or the reference point can be defined by making some kind of
measurements of these measurements the basic ones are classified in to four:
1. Horizontal distance
2. Vertical Distance
3. Horizontal Angles and
4. Vertical Angles.
1. Horizontal Distance
Most surveying data are eventually plotted and drawn as a boundary plat, a topographic
map, a building site plan, a profile of the ground along a route or a series of route cross-
sections. The scaled length of any line on the drawing is proportional to the actual
horizontal distance between its end points on the earth.
The tasks of determining the horizontal distance between two existing points and of
setting a new point at a specified distance from some other fixed position are fundamental

Surveying 2018E.C
6
KIOT COTM 2nd Year

surveying operations. The surveyor must select the appropriate equipments and apply
suitable field procedures in order to determine or set and mark distances with the required
degree of accuracy. The most common methods for measuring horizontal distances
include: pacing, stadia, taping, and electronic distance measurement (EDM).
Generally, we can define horizontal distance between two points is the distance measured
between the points which are in a horizontal plane, the plane which is perpendicular to
the vertical direction at a point or direction of gravity at the points or the horizontal
projection of the slope distance between points which are on a slopping ground.
More precisely, horizontal distance is the distance measured between points which are
in a horizontal plane or the horizontal projection of the slope distance between points on
a sloping ground.
2. Vertical Distances
The vertical direction is parallel to the direction of gravity; at any point, it is the direction
of a freely suspended plum bob cord or string. The vertical distance of a point above or
below a given reference surface is called the elevation of the point. The most commonly
used reference surface for measuring vertical distance is mean sea level (MSL). (The
words altitude & height are some times used in place of elevation)
Vertical distance between two points or between the point and reference surface is the
distance measured between the points which are in a vertical plane or a plane which is
parallel to the direction of gravity at that point and passing through the point or points

3. Horizontal Angle

One of the basic purposes of surveying is to determine the relative positions of points on
or near the earth’s surface. Assigning coordinates to a given point is a useful and
common way to indicate its position.
Horizontal angles are measured between two intersecting lines in a horizontal plane.
They are usually expressed in terms of degrees, minutes, and seconds of arc. The
horizontal angle between a given line and a specified reference line is called the direction
of the line. The reference line is called meridian. An angle measured between two
intersecting lines in a horizontal plane is called horizontal angle.

4. Vertical Angles

A vertical angle between two lines of sight is measured in a plane that is vertical at the
point of observation. In modern surveying Instruments the up ward vertical direction is
usually used as a reference for measuring vertical angles, instead of the horizontal. That
direction is called the zenith direction, and the angle measured with respect to it is called
a zenith angle
*In Surveying, angles as well as linear distances are usually measured in order to
compute the coordinates of any particular point.

Surveying 2018E.C
7
 KIOT COTM 2nd Year

1.6. Scale
A plan graphical represents the features on or near the earth’s surface as projected on a
horizontal plane. A map generally shows Natural and manmade features on the earth’s
surface with additional information such as relief’s, hachure and contour lines to indicate
undulation on the ground. The plan of a house, school, factory, bridge, road, dam or the
map of a town, city country cannot be prepared in full size on a drawing sheet. Hence, a
reduced measuring instrument to measuring instrument to measure the line or
measurement is used which is the drawing sheet with the help of the scale, to a reduced
size, this operation being known as drawing to scale.

1.6.1. Scale of a map

Scale of a map is the ratio of the distance marked on the map to the corresponding
distance on the ground. A map is a scaled graphic representation of a portion of the
earth's surface. The scale of the map permits the user to convert distance on the map to
distance on the ground or vice versa. The ability to determine distance on a map, as well
as on the earth's surface, is an important factor in planning and executing military
missions.
Scales of a map are generally classified as large, medium and small. A large scale map
shows the features in a bigger size than a small scale map. Large denominator numbers
refer to small scale, whereas small denominator numbers are indicative of a large scale.
Large scale: 1: 1000 or more, example 1:500
Medium scale: 1:1000 to 1:10,000, example 1: 5,000
Small Scale 1: 10000 or less, example 1:50,000
1.6.2. Representations of Scale
The following methods are used to represent a scale of a map:
I. By statement (e.g.- engineer’s scale)
II. By representative fraction
III. By graphical Scale
I. By statement (engineer’s Scale)-According to this representation, a
specified distance on the map represents the corresponding distance on the ground.
E.g., 1cm = 100 meters, that means 1 cm on the map represents 100m on the ground.
II. By representative fraction (RF)-it is the ration between the distance on
the map (plan) and the distance on the ground. This scale is usually written as a
fraction and is called the representative fraction. The RF is always written with the map
distance as 1 and is independent of any unit of measure (yards, meters, inches, and so
forth).
R= dm/da Where:dm = map distance
da = corresponding actual distance on the ground

Surveying 2018E.C
8
 KIOT COTM 2nd Year

Note: The unit in the numerator and denominator must be the same (scale is unit less).
E.g. 1:5000 or 1/5000, that means 1 cm on the map represents 5000 cm (=50m) on the
ground.
III. By graphical Scale: A graphical Scale is a ruler printed on the map so
that its map distance corresponds to a convenient unit of length on the ground and it is
used to convert distances on the map to actual ground distances . It is also used to
determine straight line distance between two points on a map.

1.7 Theory of Errors

In ordinary life, most of us are accustomed to counting but not as much to measuring.
Surveying is concerned with measurements of quantities whose exact or true values may
not be determined, such as distances, elevations, volumes, directions etc. Obviously, with
better equipment he can estimate an answer that is closer to the exact value but will never
be able to determine the value absolutely.
Thus a fundamental principle of surveying is that no measurement is exact and the true
value of the quantity being measured is never known. (Exact or true values do exist, but
they cannot be determined).
1.7.1 Accuracy and Precision
The terms accuracy and precision are constantly used in surveying, yet their correct
meanings are a little difficult to grasp. In an attempt to clarify the distinction, the
following definitions are presented:
Accuracy refers to the degree of perfection obtained in measurements. It
denotes how close a given measurement is to the true value of the quantity.
Precision or apparent accuracy is the degree of refinement with which a
given quantity is measured. In other words, it is the closeness of one
measurement to another. If a quantity is measured several times and the
values obtained are very close to each other, the precision is said to be high.
In measuring distance, precision is defined as the ratio of the error of the measurement to
the distance measured and it is reduced to fraction having a numerator of unity.
Example:- If a distance of 4200 ft is measured and the error is later estimated to equal
0.7ft, the precision of the measurement is 0.7/4200 = 1/6000. This means that
for every 6000ft measured, the error would be one ft, if the work were done
with this same degree of precision.
1.7.2 Errors and Mistakes
Surveying deals with the measurement of distance and angles. The true value of such
quantities is never known. The true value of a quantity is never known. The true value of
a quantity is a value, which is absolutely free from all types of errors. The true value
cannot be determined because some errors always creep in the measured quantities. The
errors occur because the instrument cannot be absolutely perfect. Moreover, a surveyor

Surveying 2018E.C
9
KIOT COTM 2nd Year

cannot take the observations correctly because of human limitations. Further, a change
in climatic conditions also limits the accuracy of the measurement. A major concern in
surveying is the precision of the work. The ever present difference between measured
quantities and the true magnitude of those quantities are classified here in as either
mistakes or errors.
A mistake (or blunder) is a difference from a true value cased by the in attention of the
surveyor. For instance, he/she may read a number as a 6 when it is actually 9, may record
the wrong quantities in the field notes, or may add a column or numbers incorrectly.
An error is a difference from a true value caused by the imperfection of the person’s
senses, by the imperfection of his equipment, or by weather effects, Errors cannot be
eliminated but they can be minimized by careful work, combined with the application of
certain numerical corrections. The result is that all measurements are imperfect.

1.7.3 Sources of Errors

There are three sources of errors; people, instrument and nature .Accordingly, errors in
measurement are generally said: personal, instrumental, and natural, however, some
errors do not clearly fit in to one of these categories and may be due to a combination of
factors.
Personal errors occur due to human limitations, such as sense of sight and touch. For
instance, in estimating the fractional part of a scale, the surveyor cannot read it perfectly
and will always be either a little large or a little small.
Instrumental errors occur because instruments cannot be manufactured perfectly and
the different parts of instruments cannot be adjusted exactly with respect to each other.
Moreover, with time the wear and tear of the instruments causes errors.
Natural errors are caused by changes in natural phenomena, such as temperature, wind,
humidity, refraction, and magnetic field. For example if a tape has been calibrated at
20c, but the field temperature is 30 c there will be a natural error due to temperature
variation.

Surveying 2018E.C
10
KIOT COTM 2nd Year

1.7.4 Types of Errors

In surveying, errors can be broadly classified into the following three types, based on
their occurrence and sources.
1. Gross errors or blunders
2. Systematic or cumulative errors
3. Accidental or random errors
1. Gross errors: it also known as blunders or mistakes. Gross errors are inaccuracies
in measurement occurring because of some part of the surveying operation are
performed improperly (i.e. carelessness of the surveyor).
 Are results from Carelessness on the part of observer in taking or recording
reading;
 They are difference from the true value caused by the carelessness of the
surveyor. For example:
 Faults in equipment’s,
 Adoption of wrong technique,
 Misinterpretation,
For example, he/she may read a number as 6 when it is actually 9 and record the wrong
quantity.
2. Systematic errors: Systematic errors follow some well-defined mathematical or
physical law or system. The magnitude and the sign of the systematic errors can be
determined and a suitable correction can be applied to the measured quantity.
A systematic error will always have the same sign and magnitude under the same
conditions. For example, if a 30m steel tape has been standardized at a temperature of
20c but the field temperature is 30c the tape will be about 3.5mm too long. This
means when the measured distance is 30m, the actual (real) distance is 30.0035m.
There is a systematic error of -3.5mm in every 30m-tape length.
The systematic errors are cumulative in nature. For example, if in the above case the
total distance is 300m (i.e. 10 tape lengths) the total systematic error will be 35mm
for a field temperature of 30c.
3. Accidental errors: Accidental errors are random in nature and occur beyond the
control of the surveyor. Random errors do not follow any fixed pattern or law.
These errors can be positive or negative. These errors tend to cancel themselves in a
series of measurements, and are, therefore, also called compensating errors.
For instance, when a person reads an angle with a surveying instrument, he or she cannot
read it perfectly, one time he or she will read a value that is too large and the next time
will read a value that is too small since these errors are just as likely to have different

Surveying 2018E.C
11
KIOT COTM 2nd Year

signs as the other, they tend to a certain degree to cancel each other or compensate for
each other.

Accidental errors occur due to:

 Imperfection in the instruments
 Human limitation or
 Change in atmospheric conditions
Errors, which remain in the measured quantities after mistakes and systematic errors have
been eliminated or corrected, are generally the accidental errors.
Mistakes occur in measurements due to carelessness inattention, inexperience or poor
judgment of the surveyor. For example, if the surveyor reads 13m on a tape as 31m, it
would be a mistake.

Surveying 2018E.C
12