1

Module: I

Land Revenue Settlements Introduced by the British in India

The British colonial rule in India introduced several land revenue settlements to collect taxes from
landowners. British administration extracted maximum land revenue from Indian peasants. This
naturally declined Indian agriculture and peasantry. The important land revenue settlements
introduced by the British in India were:

Permanent Settlement: In 1793, the British introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal.
This permanently fixed the land revenue for a particular area. This settlement was later extended
to other parts of India. It had some negative consequences. The fixed nature of the revenue
created difficulty during natural calamities. The system favored wealthy landlords over small
farmers.

Ryotwari Settlement: This settlement was introduced in areas where individual farmers owned
their land. Under this system, the government collected taxes directly from the farmers. This
reduced the power of the intermediary class. At the same time, it also placed a heavy burden on
individual farmers, who were responsible for paying revenue directly to the government.

Mahalwari Settlement: This settlement was introduced in areas where the land was owned by
a group of people, such as a village or a clan. The government collected taxes from the group as a
whole. Under this system, the revenue demand was shared by the members of the group. This was
intended to reduce the burden on individual cultivators. It also led to disputes over revenue
sharing and problems with collection.

The Zamindari System: This system was introduced in the northern parts of India. Under this
system, Zamindars were given the right to collect revenue from smaller landowners. They were
also responsible for paying a fixed amount to the government. The Zamindars often charged high
rates of interest on loans and demanded high rents from tenants. Thus, this system often led to
exploitation.

Impact of the Land Revenue Settlements

The British land revenue settlements were exploitative nature. These settlements negatively
affected the peasants. This led to poverty and famines. The major impacts of the land revenue
settlements were:

 Commercialization of agriculture
 Growth of cash crops
 Displacement of small farmers
 Concentration of land in the hands of a few wealthy individuals
 Social and economic inequality
 2

The British and the Establishment of Judicial System in India

British established a judicial system in India. It aimed to serve their interests and maintain control
over the local population. The important aspects of the judicial system are:

 The British introduced the English common law system. It was different from the existing
Indian legal system, which was based on customs and traditions.
 The judicial system was hierarchical, with the Supreme Court at the top and lower courts at
the district and local levels.
 The British introduced the principle of separation of powers. The judiciary was supposed to
act independently of the executive and legislative branches of government.
 The British also introduced the concept of the rule of law, where the law is above all
individuals, including the rulers themselves.
 The British judicial system was primarily designed to protect British interests in India. It was
not always fair or impartial to the local population.
 The system was expensive and inaccessible to the majority of the Indian population, who
were unable to afford.
 The British also introduced laws that were discriminatory towards Indians, such as the
infamous Rowlatt Act of 1919, which allowed for the imprisonment of Indian political
activists without trial.

The British judicial system in India was established to maintain their control over the Indian
population and protect their own interests. It failed to provide fair and impartial justice to all.

Establishment of Police and Army

During their colonial rule in India, the British established a police force and an army to maintain
law and order, and to protect their interests.

Police: The British established the first modern police force in India in 1861, with the passing of
the Indian Police Act. The police were primarily responsible for maintaining law and order, and for
suppressing any rebellion against the British rule.

Army: The army was another crucial institution established by the British in India. The British
recruited Indian soldiers into their army. They used them to expand and maintain their colonial
empire. Indian soldiers were sent to fight in various wars, including World War I and II. Indian
soldiers were often subjected to harsh treatment and discrimination.

The British used the police and army to suppress any protest against their rule, and to maintain
control over the local population.

Establishment of Indian Civil Service

The Indian Civil Service (ICS) was established by the British government in 1858. The ICS was the
main administrative service of the British in India. It was responsible for the governance and
administration of the country. The vast majority of ICS officers were British. Only a small number
 3

of Indians were recruited into it. The ICS played a crucial role in the economic and social
development of India. It was responsible for the introduction of modern education, healthcare,
and infrastructure. After India gained independence in 1947, the ICS was replaced by the Indian
Administrative Service (IAS), which was intended to be a more inclusive and representative
service.

Module II

Socio-Religious Reform Movements of 19th Century

19th century witnessed the emergence of several socio-religious reform movements in India. The
aim of these movements was the modernisation of Indian society and religion. Many factors
contributed to the development of these movements. The important among them are:

 British rule and its impact on the society

 Re-discovery of India’s past
 Growth of education
 Growth of press
 Influence of western Ideas

Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj

Raja Ram Mohan Roy is rightly regarded as the ‘Father of Indian Renaissance’. He was born in 1772
at Radhanagar, a small village in Bengal. He mastered several languages, including Sanskrit,
Persian, Arabic, Hebrew, Greek and English. He worked under the East India Company for ten
years. At the age of forty he left the Company service and dedicated his life for the service of
people.

In 1815, Ram Mohan founded the short lived Atmiya Sabha (Friendly Society) to propagate his
doctrines of monotheistic Hinduism. In 1822, he founded Anglo Hindu School and four years later
the Vedanta College, in order to teach his monotheistic doctrines.

He published several works in order to propagate his ideas. The important among them are:

 Precepts of Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness

 Thuhafat-ul-Muwahidin (Gift to Monotheists)
 Sambad Kaumudi (Bengali Weekly)
 Mirat-ul-Akbar (The Mirror of Intelligence)

Mohan Roy founded the Brahmo Samaj in 1828 at Calcutta. The basic principles of the Brahmo
Samaj were the worship of one God and the brotherhood of man. He stood for a rational approach
to religion. The Brahmo Samaj laid emphasis on the love of mankind irrespective of caste, colour
and race. He criticized polytheism and idol worship as sinful. He also rejected the caste divisions,
sacrifices, rituals and social evils.
 4

Ram Mohan worked for the liberation of Indian women. He attacked polygamy and low status of
the widows. He stood for the property rights of the women and inter-caste marriage. He led a
crusade against the practice of ‘sati’. With his effort, in 1829 Lord William Bentinck abolished sati.

Ram Mohan Roy stressed the need of the freedom of the press. He also criticised the government
for excluding Indians form the higher posts. He propagated for democracy and liberty. He also
advocated system of English education.

The main scope of the activities of the Brahmo Samaj was confined to Bengal. But later its
branches were established in U.P, Punjab, Madras and several other places. In 1830, Roy went to
England to attend the court of King William IV as an envoy of the Mughal Emperor, Akbar Shah II,
who conferred on him the title of ‘Raja’. He died at Bristol in 1833. The death of Roy resulted in
the division in Brahmo Samaj. Later, Devendranath Tagore formed Adi Brahma Samaj and Kesava
Chandra Sen started Brahmo Samaj of India.

Raj Ram Mohan Roy was a great champion of modern ideas. He was considered as the first
modern man in India and the herald of new age. According to Rabindranath Tagore, Raja Ram
Mohan Roy inaugurated the modern age in India.

Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Arya Samaj

Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanand Saraswati at Bombay in 1875. It was a Hindu
revivalist movement. Swami Dayanand Saraswati tried to reform the Hindu society and started
several movements for that. He believed in one God, rejected polytheism and the use of images.
He raised his voice against the caste restrictions, child marriage and prohibition of sea voyages. He
encouraged female education and remarriage of widows.

After making a comparative study of several religions, he published a work Satyartha Prakash. He
believed Vedic period was an ideal period. He argued that the Vedas were the fountain head of
science and religion for all mankind. His motto was “Go back to the Vedas”. He wanted to shape
the Indian society on the model of the Vedas. His ideal was to unite India religiously, socially and
nationally. He propagated a classless and casteless society, and an India free from foreign rule.

Dayanand began Sudhi Movement to reconvert the Hindus, who had once unwillingly or forcefully
converted to other religions. In 1882, the Arya Samaj started a Cow Protection Association. In
order to propagate knowledge among the people, the Samaj opened a network of schools and
colleges. The Dayanand Anglo-Vedic College at Lahore became the foremost agency of spreading
nationalism in Punjab.

Dayanand preached the gospel of Swadeshi. He declared that a good government by a foreign
ruler was no substitute for self-government. He introduced a system of election for the first time
to the Samaj. The Samaj stood for equal rights of man and women in social and educational
matters.

The Arya Samaj contributed to the awakening of the spirit of Indian nationalism. But in some areas
it took the form of increased Hindu identity. It was successful in Punjab, U.P., Gujarat and
Rajasthan. Dayanand was the first to recognise Hindi as the national language of India.
 5

Prarthana Samaj
Prarthana Samaj was founded by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang in 1867 at Bombay. The early leaders of
the movement were M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar.

Aims of the Samaj:

 Propagation of monotheistic worship
 Opposition to Caste System
 Introduction of widow remarriage
 Encouragement of female education
 Abolition of child marriage

Activities of the Prarthana Samaj:

 Founded Deccan Education Society to promote education
 Started night schools for working people
 Organised Associations of Women for the education of girls
 Founded Social Service League for social activities
 Started an orphanage and an asylum
 Founded Depressed Classes Mission for improving the conditions of the depressed classes

Prarthana Samaj opened its branches in Poona, Surat, Ahmedabad and Karachi. It became a
popular movement in Maharashtra. Samaj contributed to the spread of education among the
women. The activities of the Samaj helped to awakening Hindu self-respect. It also contributed to
the growth of Indian Nationalism.

Theosophical Society
The word theosophy is a combination of two Greek words: theos means god and sophiya means
wisdom. Thus, theosophy means knowledge of God. Theosophical Society was founded by Madam
Blavatsky and Col. Olcott in New York in 1875. They arrived in India in 1879 and established its
headquarters at Adayar, near Madras. In India the Society became popular under the leadership of
Annie Besant, an Irish lady.

The main aim of the Society was to propagate universal brotherhood. It rejected discrimination
based on caste, sex, race, colour, etc. The members of the Society believed that a special
relationship can be established between a person’s soul and God by meditation, prayer and
revelation. The Society accepted the Hindu belief in re-incarnation and Karma. Annie Besant
defended Hinduism against the attack of Christian missionaries. She translated Bhagavat Gita into
English.

Besant laid the foundation of the Central Hindu College in Benares in 1898, later it lead to the
formation of Benares Hindu University. The Society opposed child marriage and advocated
abolition of caste system.
 6

Theosophical Society gave a common platform to the various sects of Hinduism. It contributed to
the awakening and self-respect of the Indians. Under the guidance of Annie Besant, Theosophical
movement became a Hindu revival movement in India. It promoted the spirit of national pride and
contributed to the growth of Indian nationalism.

Ramakrishna Mission
Ramakrishna Mission was organised by Swami Vivekananda in 1897 in Calcutta. The Mission was
named after his Guru – Ramakrishna Paramahamsa. Ramakrishna Paramahamsa was a priest in a
temple at Dakshineswar. He was a scholar, thinker and philosopher. He believed that “Krishna,
Hari, Rama, Christ and Allah are different names of the same God”. Further he considered that
“there were several roads to God and salvation”. He hold the view that the “service of man was
service to God”.

Swami Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission to spread the message of his Guru.

The aims of the Mission

 Synthesis of various faiths
 Harmony among various faiths
 Manifest divinity inherent in man
 Service of mankind

Vivekananda attended the Parliament of Religions at Chicago in 1893. Through his speeches he
impressed all the people of the conference. He established several Vedic Societies in different
parts of America. He was a true internationalist and advocated for the establishment of
international organisations and international laws for maintaining harmony between nations.

Vivekananda was against untochability and caste system. He attacked blind faith and conservatism
existed among the Indians. He believed in the unity and equality of all religions. Vivekananda was a
great patriot. He published Prabudha Bharatha (monthly) in English and Udbodhana (fortnightly)
in Bengali to arise nationalist feelings among the people. He supported the modern ideas of
liberty, equality and free thinking. He also stood for the spread of education among the masses.

The Ramakrishna Mission started several charitable institutions to help the poor. Vivekananda and
his mission made great contribution to the Indian culture, religion and society. Mahatma Gandhi
regarded him as the Prophet of Indian Nationalism. He called for international harmony and
peace.

Aligarh Movement
The Aligarh Movement was started by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. The aim of the movement was the
social and educational advancement of Muslims in India. He encouraged the Muslims to welcome
western education. In order to give modern education to his people, he founded Muhammedan
Anglo Oriental College at Aligarh. Later, it became Aligarh Muslim University. This college became
the centre of political activities of Muslims in India.
 7

Ahmed Khan wrote Commentaries on Quran and stressed the study of Quran. He started a paper
Loyal Mohammedans of India, to convince British rulers that the Muslims are loyal to them. He
founded Annual Muslim Educational Conference in 1886 to withhold the Muslims from attending
Indian National Congress meeting. In 1888, Ahmed Khan founded League, a patriotic association of
the Muslims.

Aligarh movement brought the socio-political advancement of the Muslims in India. It raised the
social status of the Muslims through education. Thus, it liberalised the Indian Muslims. Thus, the
Aligarh movement contributed to the religious and cultural revival of the Muslims in India.

Other Reformers and Movements

 Sree Narayana Guru - founded Sree Narayana Dharma Paripalana Yogam in 1903. He
held the view that there is ‘One Caste, One Religion and One God for Man’.
 E V Ramaswami Naicker – Started Self-respect Movement in Tamil Nadu. He started a
Journal – Kudi Arasu to propagate his ideas.
 Jyotirao Phule – founded Satya Shodhak Samaj in Maharashtra. His wife Savitribai Phule
was the head of the women’s section of the Samaj. The main aim of the Samaj was to
obtain social justice for backward and depressed classes. His books Sarvajanik
Satyadharma Pusthak and Gulamgiri.

Module: III

Causes for the Revolt of 1857

The Revolt of 1857 was the first major movement against the British Rule in India. The East India
Company's rule from 1757 to 1857 had generated a lot of dissatisfaction among the different
sections of the Indian people against the British. This resulted to the revolt of 1857. The Colonial
historians termed it as a ‘Sepoy Mutiny’. The Indian nationalist historians considered it as the ‘First
War of Indian Independence’.

Political Causes
Lord Dalhousie’s expansionist policy in India was the primary political cause. He implemented the
policy of Doctrine of Lapse. Through this policy he annexed Indian states in the absence of natural
heirs. By applying the Doctrine of Lapse, Dalhousie annexed the principalities of Satara, Jaipur,
Sambhalpur, Bhagat, Udaipur, Jhansi, and Nagpur. He also annexed Oudh on charge of mis-
governance. Further, Dalhousie suspended the pension to Nana Sahib and of Lakshmi Bai, of
Jhansi. He also proposed to abolish the title of the Mughal emperor after the death of Bahadur
Shah II. All these political interventions brought fear and humiliation to the Indian native rulers.

Economic Causes
Economic exploitation was the basic motive behind the British rule in India. They considered India
as a place for the raw materials to feed their industries. They also considered India as a market
place for their finished products. It resulted in the complete destruction of Indian industries. The
 8

millions of artisans and craftsmen, spinners, weavers, smelters, smiths and others lost their jobs.
Dadabhai Naoroji explained this economic exploitation through his theory of Drain of Wealth
presented in his book, Poverty and Un-British Rule in India. Further, the British introduced several
land revenue settlements to exploit maximum revenue. These economic policies of the British
badly affected every section of the Indian society. Poverty, famine and starvation became
common in Indian villages.

Administrative Causes
The British administration was quiet unpopular. The British administrators believed in the theory
of racial superiority and considered Indians as inferior and uncivilised. Thus the English officials
were not accessible to the people. The educated Indians were excluded from the administrative
positions. The British administrators passed several laws to benefit their rule in India.

Social Causes
The British introduced several social legislations to modernise Indian society. Lord William
Bentinck abolished the practice of sati in 1829. Lord canning enacted the widow Remarriage Act
in 1856. The orthodox section of the Indian society considered these acts as interference by the
British in their social and religious practice. This created popular discontent against the British.

Religious Causes
By the Charter Act of 1813, Christian missionaries were permitted to enter in India to propagate
their religion and spread Western education. The Christian missionaries criticised idol worship,
ridiculed the Hindu gods and goddesses. They also criticized the philosophy and principals of
Hinduism and Islam. The teaching of Christian doctrines was made compulsory in educational
institutes run by the missionaries. The British also changed the Hindu law of property with a view
to facilitate the conversion of Hindus to Christianity. All these worried many orthodox Indians.

Military Causes
The Indian soldiers in the British army were considered inferior and were excluded from higher
posts. The British authorities prohibited the Hindus and the Muslim sepoys to display their caste
and religious marks. The Muslims sepoys were forced to shave off their beard. The Hindu soldiers
were forced to cross the Sea. These touched the religious sentiments of the sepoys.

Immediate Cause
The immediate cause of the revolt was the introduction of the new Enfield rifle and the greased
cartridge. To insert the cartridge, the sepoy had to bite off its top. A rumour spread that the
grease was made out of the fats of cows and pigs. The cow was sacred to the Hindus, and the pig
was a forbidden for the Muslims. Hence, the sepoys refused to use these cartridges. This sparked
the revolt.
 9

Beginning of the Revolt

The first sign of the revolt took placed in Barrackpore in Bengal. On 29th March, A Brahmin
sepoys, Mangal Pandey refused to use the newly introduced riffle and fired at Lieutenant Baugh.
Mangal Pandey was arrested and executed. He became the first martyr of the revolt. This news
spread to other parts which sparked the revolt.

Major Centres and Leaders of the Revolt

 Delhi - Emperor Bahadur Shah and Bakht Khan
 Kanpur – Nana Sahib and Tantia Tope
 Lucknow – Begum Hazrat Mahal
 Jhansi - Rani Lakshmibai
 Arrah in Bihar - Kunwar Singh

Nature of the Revolt or Different theories of the Revolt

There are two major views regarding the nature of the Revolt of 1857. The British historians
considered the revolt of 1857 as a sepoy mutiny. On the other hand, the patriotic and nationalist
Indian writers & historians regard the Revolt of 1857 as the First War of Indian Independence.
However, the truth lies somewhere in between.

Sepoy Mutiny
The British historians Sir John Lawrence and Seeley, considered the revolt as a sepoy mutiny.
According to Seeley, the Revolt of 1857 was an unpatriotic and selfish sepoys mutiny with no
native leadership and no popular support.

First War of India’s Independence

The Indian historians such as V.D. Savarkar, in his book The Indian War of Independence and
Ashok Mehta in his book, 1857 The Great Rebellion describe the Revolt of 1857 as a planned war
of national independence'. They argued that a large number of Indians participated in this struggle
of independence.

The Revolt was more than a Sepoy Mutiny and less than a National War of
Independence
Indian historians R.C. Majumdar and S.N. Sen held the view that the revolt was more than a sepoy
mutiny and less than a war of independence. They argued that there was no feeling of nationalism
during that period. Most of the leaders of the revolt have their own grievances. Moreover, the
greater part of India and the majority of the people did not participated in this.

Hindu-Muslim conspiracy to overthrow the British Rule

Sir James Outram and W Tayler described the Revolt of 1857 as the result of the Hindu- Muslim
conspiracy. However, there is no reliable evidence to prove this theory.
 10

A war of Races between the Blacks and the Whites

Some English historians considered the Revolt of 1857, as a war of races. It was a struggle between
the whites and the blacks. However, this view is also not correct.

A Conflict between Civilization and Barbarism

Some English historians led by T.R. Holmes popularised the view that the revolt was a ‘conflict
between civilisation and barbarism.’ The view is the result of narrow racial thinking and it is not
true.

A National Rising
Benjamin Disraeli, a conservative leader in England, described it ‘a national rising’. He argued that
the mutiny was no sudden. It was a waited moment against the British unpopular rule.

A War between Feudalism and Imperialism

Jawaharlal Nehru argued that the Revolt of 1857 was essentially a feudal outbreak headed by
feudal chiefs and their followers. The Revolt of 1857 can be viewed as a conflict between a
feudalism and strong imperialism.

Marxist Interpretation
The Marxist historians interpreted the revolt as the struggle of the soldier-peasant democratic
combination against foreign as well as feudal oppression.

Restorative Character of the Revolt of 1857

The immediate aims of the revolt were to restore the political rule of different Indian territories. It
also aims to restore the socio-religious practices. Most of the rulers of the Indian territories raised
the banner of revolt to restore their political power and prestige. The orthodox section joined with
the revolutionaries to restore their traditional practices.

Results of the Revolt

The Revolt of 1857 marked a turning point in the history of Modern India. The Revolt produced
both positive and negative results. The important results are:

Transfer of power from the East India Company to the British Crown
By an Act of Parliament in 1858 the power to govern Indian territories were transferred from the
East India Company to the British Queen. Under this Act, a Secretary of the State was appointed to
govern India for the Queen. He was made directly responsible to the British Parliament. To assist
and advise him, a Council known as the India Council was created.
 11

Queen’s Proclamation of 1858

The Queen’s Proclamation of 1858 announced the policy of the British government to be followed
in India. It assured that the policy of territorial extension will be abandoned. The native rulers
were assured of the safety of their territory, rights and honour if they cooperated with British. The
right of a ruler to adopt a child in the absence of a natural heir was accepted. The title of
Governor-General was created to head the rule in India.

Reconstruction of the Indian Army

British attitude towards the Indian army underwent radical change. The number of Indian soldiers
was reduced and the number of European Soldiers was increased. The proportion of Europeans to
Indians was fixed at fifty-fifty in the Bengal army and one to two elsewhere.

The Policy of Annexation was Given Up

The British authorities realized the importance of the Princely States and wanted their support to
the British rule in the country. Hence, the policy of the annexation of princely state was given up.

Increase in Racial Hostility between the British and the Indians

The British had formed a separate community in India. They considered themselves as superior
and ruling power. On the other hand Indians tried to seek self-respect and honor. This widened
the racial differences and hostility.

The Policy of Divide and Rule

After the Revolt of 1857, the British implemented the policy of divide and rule. The British used
one class or caste against the other. The Muslims were made to fight against the Hindus. The high
caste Hindus were made to fight against the low caste Hindus.

Organised Economic Exploitation

The revolt of 1857 was followed by systematic drain of wealth from India to England. The British
government followed systematic economic loot and plunder. This naturally destroyed Indian
economy.

Causes of the Failure of the Revolt

There were several factors responsible for the British success. The important among them are:

a) The revolt was confined to North India only. It did not spread to whole part of the country.
b) The revolt failed to hold all the sections of the society. Many of the native rulers and the
Zamindars refused to join the revolt against the British. They extended an active support to
the British to suppress the revolt.
c) The revolt was poorly organized and lacked able leadership
d) The rebels lacked a common cause and spirit of nationalism. They had different goals.
 12

e) The ruling princes did not support the sepoys. They actively assisted the British in
suppressing the revolt.
f) The British had better resources. The British soldiers were equipped with latest weapons
and used the telegraph and railways to their advantages.

Module: IV

Causes for the Emergence of Indian Nationalism

The second half of the 19th century witnessed the emergence of nationalism in India. The Indian
national movement was emerged as a reaction against the British rule. It was based on patriotism
and it became a great unifying force. Several factors contributed to the rise of nationalism in India.
The important among them are:

Political Unification of India

For the first time, India became politically unified under the British rule. It also brought
administrative unity. Common institutions, common laws, common judicial system were framed.
This political unity generated a spirit of nationalism among the Indians.

The Impact of the Social Reform Movements

The 19th century socio-religious reform movements played a crucial role in the emergence Indian
Nationalism. The movements like, Brahmo Samaj, Arya Samaj, Theosophical Society and
Ramakrishna Mission stressed on the past glory of the country. These movements revived the
pride on the culture and heritage of India.

Impact of Western Education

Through western education, the Indians came into contact with western ideas. The ideas of
nationalism, democracy, liberty, equality, fraternity, socialism, etc. influenced the Indians. The
English educated young intellectuals of India began to demand for freedom.

Re-discovery of India’s Glorious Past

The European scholars, who arrived in India, studied about the India’s ancient past. Scholars like
Max Muller, Sir William Jones, Alexander Cunningham, etc. studied about Indian Culture. Several
historical excavations were conducted and many ancient Sanskrit texts were translated into
English. This re-discovery of India’s past gave a new spirit of nationalism.

Development of Transport and Communication

The British constructed several rails, roads and canals for the advancement of transportation. This
made possible to mobilise public opinion in national level. Similarly, the introduction of telegraph,
wireless and postal service enabled people living in different parts of India to maintain regular
contact with one another.
 13

Economic Exploitation of the British

The economic policies of the British destroyed Indian agriculture, trade and industries. It also
resulted in increased unemployment. Naturally, famine and starvation became a regular feature of
Indian rural areas.

Racial Discrimination

The British rulers believed in the theory of racial superiority and considered themselves as
superior. They considered Indians as uncivilised and ill-treated the people in several ways. All
higher jobs were reserved to the white men. This narrow approach created a feeling of hatred
against the British.

Role of Press

Indian Press played a crucial role in mobilizing public opinion, organising political movements and
promoting nationalism. Prominent Newspapers like, Amrita Bazar Patrika, Maratha, Kesari,
Kohinoor, the Hindu, Bengalee, Native Opinion, Hindu Patriot, Indian Mirror, etc. contributed to
the emergence of nationalism.

Role of Writers

The development of vernacular languages and literature played a crucial role in inspiring the
people. Bankim Chandra Chatteijee’s ‘Anand Math’, which contained the song Vande Mataram,
became the popular song of patriotism. Dinabandhu Mitra’s play ‘Nil Darpan’, which portrayed
the plight of the indigo cultivators created revolutionary sprit. The writing of Rabindranath Tagore
and other Indian scholars received popularity.

Rise of Indian Middle Class

Under the British rule, Indian middle class such as businessmen, industrialists and financiers were
emerged. They realised that the British rule was a hindrance to the industrial development of the
country. They naturally supported the national movement.

Repressive Policies of Lord Lytton

Lord Lytton’s period witnessed the introduction of several repressive policies. He imposed heavy
tax on the people of India. He passed Arms Act which prohibited the Indians from keeping arms
without license. He also passed Vernacular Press Act which imposed restrictions on the freedom
of the press.

Ilbert Bill Controversy

During the period of Lord Rippon, the Ilbert bill was passed. It empowered the Indian judges to try
the Europeans. Indians welcomed the bill, but the Europeans started organised protest against the
bill. Due to the protest of the Europeans, later, the bill was withdrawn. Thus, the Indians felt that
they will not get justice under the British rule.

All these factors together promoted the growth of nationalism in India.

 14

Formation of Indian National Congress (INC)

The Indian National Congress was founded in December 1885 at Bombay by [Link], a retired
British civil servant. It marked a new beginning in the history of Indian nationalism. It was the first
organized expression of Indian nationalism on an all Indian scale.

The First Meeting of INC

The first session of the Indian National Congress was held at Tejpal Sanskrit Padasala in Bombay in
1885. The meeting was presided over by W.C. Bannerjee, a leading lawyer of Calcutta. 72
members participated in this first session.

Aims of the Congress

The important aims of the Congress were declared to be:

 Promotion of friendly relations between nationalist political workers from various parts of
the country.
 Development and consolidation of the feeling of national unity irrespective of caste,
religion or province.
 Formulation of popular demands and its presentation to the government.
 Training and organisation of public opinion in the country.

Theories on the Formation of INC

Historians have different opinions regarding the formation of Indian National Congress. The most
important views are:

Safety valve Theory

The extremist leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai believed in the ‘safety valve’ theory. They argued that,
A.O. Hume formed the Congress as a ‘safety valve’ for releasing the growing discontent of the
Indians against the British.

Hume-Dufferin Conspiracy Theory

The Marxist historians argued that the formation of INC was a conspiracy of Lord Dufferin, the
Governor-General of India and A O Hume to provide a peaceful and constitutional platform for the
Indians to protest. This theory was also based on the idea of ‘safety valve’.

Ambitions and Rivalries of Indian Elite

The Cambridge historians, particularly Anil Seal expressed the view that the Indian National
Congress was a movement of self-interested individuals. It functioned as a vehicle for their
material interests and narrow rivalries.
 15

Formed as a National Body by the Politically Conscious Indians

The modern Indian historians generally viewed that the formation of INC was the result of
politically conscious among the Indians. They considered its emergence as the result of growing
national movement in India.

Indian National Congress – Moderate Phase (1885-1905)

The early Congressmen who dominated the affairs of the Congress from 1885 to 1905 were known
as ‘moderates’. The important leaders of this phase of INC were: Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade,
Pheroze Shah Mehta, Gopala Krishna Gokhale, W.C. Banerjee, Surendra Nath Banerjee,
Badruddin Tyabji, and R.C. Dutt

Dadhabai Naoroji – Drain of Wealth

Dadhabai Naoroji was the moderate leader of the Indian National Congress and was popularly
known as the ‘Grand Old Man of India’. In 1867, Dadabhai Naoroji put forward his theory of ‘drain
of wealth’. He stated that the Britain was completely economically draining India. He mentioned
this theory in his book Poverty and Un-British Rule in India.

Ideology of Moderates
During its early phase, the leaders of the INC were guided by the following ideologies:

 Loyalty to the British - The Moderates considered the coming of the British as beneficial.
They believed that the British had brought peace and order to the country. They were
grateful and loyal to the British.
 Moderation – They believed in peaceful methods of activism and stood against all kinds of
violence.
 Constitutionalism - The moderates believed in constitutional methods of protest. They
followed constitutional rules implemented by the British.
 Liberalism - They stood for liberal policies and believed in personal freedom.
 Gradualism – They believed in gradual progress and not advocated for radical progress.

Programme of Moderates
Prayer, Petition and Protest – The moderates believed in prayer, petition and protest policy. They
They believed in peaceful and bloodless agitations and never supported violence.

Public Meetings, Speeches and Resolutions – The moderates held public meetings and speeches
to give political education to the Indians. They also promoted political consciousness and unity.

Pleaded for Reforms – The Moderates pleaded for reforms in administration, in councils, in
services, in local bodies, in defence services, etc.
 16

Demands or Reforms of the Moderates

From 1885 to 1905, the Congress held its annual meetings at various places in India. They passed
several resolutions demanding political, economic and administrative reforms. The important
among them are:

 Separation of judiciary from the executive

 Representation of Indians in the administrative system
 Appointments of Indians to the higher posts
 Freedom of speech & abolition of press censorship.
 Total abolition of the salt tax and the duty on sugar.
 Revival of Indian industries
 Reduction of land tax
 Establishment of rural banks to offer loans to the farmers at a low rate of interest
 Expansion of Viceroy’s and Governor’s executive council
 Reconstruction of Indian provincial councils
 Demand for simultaneous Indian Civil Service examinations in England and India.
 Repeal of the Arms Act and Licence Act.

The moderates laid the strong foundations for the national movement in India.

Indian National Congress – Extremist Phase

The younger group emerged in the Congress sharply criticised the ideology and methods of the
moderates. They advocated the adoption of ‘Swaraj’ as the goal of the Congress to be achieved by
more self-reliant and independent methods. The important leaders of this group were Lala Lajpat
Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal and Bal Gangadhar Tilak. The new group came to be called the extremists.

Causes for the rise of Extremism

Recognition of the True Nature of the British Rule: - Through their writings, the early nationalist
leaders had exposed the true nature of British rule in India. Dadabhai Naoroji’s “Indian Poverty
and un-British Rule in India” and R.C. Dutt’s “Economic History of India” were focused on the
exploitative nature of the British rule.

Reaction to the Increasing Westernisation: - The younger group of the Congress stood against the
excessive westernisation of Indian life. The writings of Bankim, Vivekananda and Swami Dayanand
inspired them.

Dissatisfaction with the Achievement of the Moderates: - The younger group within the Congress
were dis-satisfied with the achievements of the Congress during the first 15-20 years. They were
strongly critical of the methods of peaceful and constitutional agitation.

Declining Economic Condition of India: - The economic exploitation of the British caused famine,
poverty and starvation. The terrible famines and epidemics broke out in Maharashtra caused the
death of many people.
 17

Contemporary International Influences: - Nationalist movements in Egypt, Turkey and Russia

inspired the younger groups. Abyssinia’s successful defence of the Italian army and Japan’s victory
over Russia gave them new hope.

Lord Curzon’s Reactionary Policies: - Curzon’s suppressive policies created wide spread discontent
among the younger groups.

The Partition of Bengal: - Lord Curzon implemented the Partition of Bengal in 1905. The younger
group within the Congress demanded the adoption of new methods of agitations like swadeshi
and boycott. The anti-partition movement provided a new energy to the younger group of the
Congress.

Objectives and Programmes of Extremist Group

Swaraj or Self-government:- The Extremists proposed Swaraj as the goal of Congress. Tilak argued
that Swaraj is my birth right and I will have it‘. The demand for Swaraj was a demand for complete
freedom from foreign control.

Boycott of foreign goods: - Boycott protest included the public burning of foreign cloth, boycott of
foreign-made salt or sugar. This movement became a great success.

Public meetings and processions: - A number of public meetings and processions were organised
as a mode of agitation. These emerged as major methods of mass mobilisation.

Group of volunteers or ‘samitis’: - Several volunteer samitis were created to mobilise the people.
These samitis generated political consciousness among the people. Speeches, swadeshi songs,
physical and moral training are used to educate the people. These samitis also conducted social
work during famines and epidemics.

Use of traditional popular festivals and melas: - Popular festivals were used as a means of
spreading political messages. For example, Tilak’s Ganapati and Shivaji festivals became a medium
of swadeshi propaganda.

Emphasis given to self-reliance or ‘atma shakti’: - It is aimed to provide confidence to the mass
for united agitation. Social reform and campaigns against caste oppression, early marriage, dowry
system, consumption of alcohol, etc. were conducted.

Swadeshi or national education: - National Schools and colleges were started in various parts of
the country. Bengal National College was set up with Aurobindo Ghosh as its principal. National
Council of Education was set up to organise a system of national education.

Swadeshi or indigenous enterprises: - Swadeshi textile mills, soap and match factories, banks,
insurance companies, shops etc. were established. These enterprises were used to circulate
swadeshi products.

Through their programmes and activities, the extremists attracted a wide range of mass support,
especially from students and women.