Animals

Animal Nutrition
BENG 103 General Biology for Bioengineers

Dr. Hatice Büşra LÜLECİ

2025-2026 Fall Semester

Form, Function, and Regulation
• Animals show a great variety of shapes, sizes, and behaviors.
However, their form and function are always connected.
Understanding how animals are built helps us explain how they
live and survive.

• At every level, from cells to whole organisms, structure fits

function.

• For example, the long legs of a cheetah help it run fast, while the
thick fur of a polar bear helps it stay warm.
Physical Constraints
• Physical laws, such as gravity and the movement
of fluids, limit how animals can evolve.
• Large animals need stronger bones and better
circulation systems to support their bodies.

• Different species living in similar environments

may develop similar body shapes.
• This is called convergent evolution — for
example, dolphins and sharks both have
streamlined bodies for swimming.
Types of Tissues
• Epithelial tissue: covers surfaces and lines organs
• Connective tissue: supports and binds other tissues
• Muscle tissue: allows movement
• Nervous tissue: carries information through nerve impulses
Cover outside of the
body and line organs.

Epithelial cells are

closely packed.
Supports, connects, and
protects other tissues and
organs.

It contains cells scattered in an

extracellular matrix made of
fibers and ground substance.

Bone: A hard connective tissue

Cartilage: A flexible tissue
Blood: A fluid tissue that
transports oxygen, nutrients, and
wastes throughout the body.
Adipose: Stores energy, protects
organs
Communication Systems

• Animals use two main systems

for internal communication:
• Endocrine system: uses
hormones carried by the blood
• Nervous system: uses
electrical and chemical signals
for fast responses
Maintaining Internal Balance
• Animals must keep their internal environment stable.
• This steady internal condition is called homeostasis.
• It allows the body to function even when the outside
environment changes.
Regulators and Conformers
• Regulators control internal conditions, such as body
temperature.
• Conformers allow internal conditions to change with the
environment.
• Most animals show a mix of both strategies.
Feedback Mechanisms
• Homeostasis often uses negative feedback, where the response
reduces the initial change.

• For example, when body temperature rises, sweating cools it

down.

• Positive feedback strengthens a process, such as contractions

during childbirth.
Rhythms and Acclimatization
• Animals show circadian rhythms
— daily cycles in activity and
metabolism.
• They can also acclimatize,
temporarily adjusting to new
environmental conditions like
temperature or altitude.
They can also acclimatize,
temporarily adjusting to
new environmental
conditions like temperature
or altitude.
Thermoregulation
• Thermoregulation means keeping
body temperature within a safe
range.
• Endotherms (like birds and
mammals) produce heat by
metabolism.
• Ectotherms (like reptiles) depend
on external heat sources
• Heat can be gained or lost through radiation, convection,
conduction, and evaporation.
• Animals use insulation, behavior, or circulation changes to
balance heat gain and loss.
• Many animals grow thicker fur or fat in cold weather.
• Ectotherms can change cell functions to survive different
temperatures.
• These adaptations help maintain proper body function.
 The Hypothalamus
• In mammals, the hypothalamus in the brain acts as a thermostat.
• It detects temperature changes and triggers responses like
shivering or sweating.
• Fever occurs when the set point is raised to fight infection.
Energy and Metabolism
• Animals get energy from food.
• This energy is stored as ATP and used for movement, growth, and
maintaining body functions.
• The total energy used per time is called the metabolic rate.
• Smaller animals have a higher metabolic rate per gram than larger
ones.
• Endotherms have higher metabolic rates than ectotherms
because they must produce their own heat.
The Three Needs of an Animal’s Diet
• An animal’s diet must provide:
• Chemical energy for making ATP.
• Organic building blocks for growth.
• Essential nutrients that the body cannot make itself.
Essential Nutrients
• Amino acids and fatty acids
that animals cannot synthesize.
• Vitamins, which are organic
molecules.
• Minerals, which are inorganic
substances such as iron,
calcium, and sodium.
Diversity of Animal Diets
Animals have different eating habits:
• Herbivores eat plants.
• Carnivores eat other animals.
• Omnivores eat both plants and animals.
Each type must balance food intake, storage, and energy use.

• Malnutrition happens when an animal does not get enough essential

nutrients or energy.
• This can cause disease, poor growth, or weakness.
The Four Stages of Food
Processing
Food processing in animals involves
four main stages:
• Ingestion – taking in food.
• Digestion – breaking down food
into smaller molecules.
• Absorption – taking nutrients into
cells.
• Elimination – removing
undigested material.
Feeding Strategies
Animals obtain food in different ways:
• Bulk feeders eat large pieces (like humans and lions).
• Filter feeders strain small food particles from water (like whales).
• Substrate feeders live on or in their food (like caterpillars).
• Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluids (like mosquitoes).
Compartmentalization
• Digestion must be controlled to prevent the body from digesting
itself.
• Animals use separate compartments for food breakdown and
absorption.
• This allows enzymes to work safely without damaging tissues.
Intracellular vs Extracellular Digestion
• Intracellular digestion: food is digested inside cells after being
engulfed by phagocytosis.
• Extracellular digestion: enzymes break down food outside cells,
in spaces like the gastrovascular cavity or alimentary canal.
Most animals use extracellular digestion.
Mammalian Digestive System
Major Organs of the Digestive System
• Mouth: mechanical and chemical digestion begins.
• Esophagus: moves food to the stomach.
• Stomach: stores food and breaks it down with acid and enzymes.
• Small intestine: absorbs most nutrients.
• Large intestine: absorbs water and forms waste.
Several organs support digestion:
• Salivary glands secrete enzymes.
• Liver produces bile to digest fats.
• Gallbladder stores bile.
• Pancreas releases digestive enzymes and regulates blood sugar.

• Digestive systems evolved differently depending on an animal’s diet.

• Each species developed structures that best fit its food type and
environment.
Fermentation Chambers
• Many herbivores have special
fermentation chambers with
microorganisms that help digest cellulose
in plants.
• Examples include cows and rabbits.
• These microbes produce nutrients that the
animal can absorb.

• Herbivores generally have longer

alimentary canals than carnivores.
• Plant material takes more time to digest
than meat, so a longer tract increases
absorption time.
Regulation of Digestion
• Digestion is controlled by nervous and hormonal signals.
• When food enters the stomach, nerves and hormones trigger the
release of digestive juices and move food through the canal.
Energy Storage
• Animals store extra energy for later use:
• Glycogen is stored in liver and muscle cells.
• Fat is stored in adipose tissue.

• If animals eat more than they need, they become overnourished,

which can cause obesity.
• Appetite and energy use are carefully regulated by hormones and
brain centers to maintain balance.
Hormonal Regulation of Appetite
• Several hormones control hunger and fullness:
• Insulin and glucagon regulate blood sugar levels.
• Leptin signals when fat stores are high and reduces appetite.
• These hormones act on the brain’s satiety center to maintain
energy balance.