What is a tissue?

Cells specialising in one function are often grouped together to form

a cluster in the body. They carry out particular function at a definite
place in the body. This cluster of cells are called a tissue, which is
arranged and designed to give the highest possible efficiency of
function. Blood, phloem and muscle are all examples of tissues

Difference between animal and plant tissues.

• Plants are stationary so they • Animals on the other
require more supportive tissue hand move around in
for obtaining structural search of food, mates and
strength. shelter.

• Most of these tissues are dead • They consume more

and hence they provide more energy as compared to
mechanical strength and they plants.
require less energy for their
maintenance. • Most of the tissues they
contain are living.
• The growth of plants is limited
to certain regions. In these • Animal tissues are
certain regions, growing organised into more
tissues are present, which specialized and localized
have the capacity to divide organs and organ system.
throughout life.

• Tissues are classified as

dividing (meristematic ) and
permanent tissue

Plant Tissues Classification

Types of Plant Tissue
Plant tissues are mainly divided into two categories:
Meristematic Tissue and Permanent Tissue.
1. Meristematic Tissue
These are living tissues which are capable of division throughout
life. These tissues are found in growing regions of plants. Cells
have thin cell walls, and are compactly packed with no intercellular
space.

Cells contain dense cytoplasm and do not have vacuoles.

Cells contain prominent and large nucleus.
Classification of meristematic tissue
1. Apical Meristem: It is present at the
growing tips of shoot and roots. They are
responsible for increase in the length of
shoot and root.
2. Lateral Meristem: It lies on the
lateral sides of stem and root or
occurs along the sides of the
longitudinal axis of the plant. Fig Location of meristematic
tissue in plant body
It helps in increasing the diameter (girth) of the plant, hence
helps in secondary growth.
 3. Intercalary Meristem: These are present at the base of leaf or
internode (on either side of the node).They are responsible for
the growth in length of plant organs.

2. Permanent Tissue:
• They are formed by division and differentiation of meristematic

tissue.
• They are composed of those cells which have lost the power of

division (temporarily or permanently) and attain a permanent

shape, size and function.
• Cells may be living or dead.

Permanent tissues are of two types, simple permanent tissue and

compound or complex permanent tissues.
Simple Permanent Tissue:
• made of one cell type and serves functions like support and

storage. They are three types.

Parenchyma: which consists of loosely arranged living cells
(large intercellular space, with thin walls, involved in
photosynthesis, storage, and repair.
If contains cllorophyl and performs photosynthesis than called
collenchyma.
If it contains large cavities and helps plant to float it is called
aerenchyma.
Collenchyma: Cells are living, elongated and irregularly
thickened at the corners ,very little intercellular space that
provide support and flexibility. It allows bending of various parts
of the plant like stem and tendrils. Present in leaf stalks below
the epidermis.
Sclerenchyma: Dead cells with very thick walls,less
intercellular space offering structural support. It is found in
stems, seed coverings, and other tough plant parts.
They are long and narrow as the walls are thickened due to
lignin. Often these walls are so thick that there is no internal
space inside the cell . This tissue is present in stems, around
vascular bundles, in the veins of leaves and in the hard covering
of seeds and nuts.
Various types of simple tissues: (a) Parenchyma (b) Collenchyma (c)
Sclerenchyma (I transverse section, (ii) longitudinal section.

Epidermis and its modifications

The entire surface of a plant hasan outer covering epidermis usually
made of single layer of cell. It protects all the parts of the plant
Thicker Epidermis
In some plants living in very dry habitats, the epidermis may be
thicker to protect against water loss is critical. Epidermis of arieal
parts of the plant often secrete a waxy, water resistant layer on their
outer surface. This aids in protection against loss of water,
mechanical injury and invasion by parasitic fungi. So cells of
epidermal tissue form a continuous layer without inter cellular
spaces. Most epidermal cells are relatively flat. Often their outer and
side walls are thicker than the inner wall.
Stomata
Small pores here and there in the epidermis
of the leaves are called Stomata. These
pores Stomata are enclosed by two
kidney-shaped cells called guard cells.
They are necessary forexchanging gases
with the atmosphere. Transpiration (loss of
water in the form of water vapour) also
takes place through stomata.
Epidermis cells of the root of the plant
whose function
is water absorption, commonly bear long hairlike parts that greatly
increase the total absorptive surface area.
In some plants like desert plants, epidermis has a thick waxy coating
of cutin (chemical substance with waterproof quality) on its outer
surface. To prevent water loss which is critical in desert. So it
prevents dehydration , damage from intense sunlight and UV
radiation and also pests and fungi.

As plants grow older, the outer protective tissue undergoes certain

changes. A strip of
secondary meristem located in the
cortex forms layers of cells
which constitute the cork. Cells
of cork are dead and
compactly arranged without
intercellular spaces (Fig.). They
also have a substance called
suberin in their walls which stops gases and water to pass through .

4. Complex Permanent Tissue:

• Complex permanent tissue consists of more than one type of

cell.
Examples include Xylem and Phloem, which transport water,
nutrients, and food throughout the plant. They are both
conducting tissues and constitute a vascular bundle.

• Vascular tissue is a distinctive feature of the complex plants,

one that has made possible their survival in the terrestrial
environment.

• The xylem comprises tracheids, vessels, xylem parenchyma,

and fibers.

• The Phloem comprises sieve cells, companion cells, and

phloem parenchyma.
 These tissues work together to support the plant's survival in a
terrestrial environment.

Xylem or wood : Xylem is made up of four types of cells.

• Tracheids and vessels: They are tubular structure with thick

walls with tapering ends. They transport water and minerals

vertically. Mostly they are dead cells when mature
• The parenchyma stores food.

• Xylem fibres are mainly supportive in function. Since tracheids

do not have open ends like the vessels, the water has to pass
from cell to cell via the pits.

Phloem :
Phloem transports food from leaves to other parts of the plant.
Except phloem fibres, other phloem cells are living cells. It is
made up of four types of cells
Sieve Cells : Sieve tubes are tubular
cells with perforated walls.
Companion cells : These are
associated with sieve tubes. The
companion cells help the sieve tubes
in the conduction of food material.
Phloem parenchyma : These are
living and thin walled cells which
helps in sideways conduction of
food. It stores various materials like resin, latex and mucilage.
Phloem fibre : Phloem fibres are dead cells. Phloem fibres of
some plants are the source of commercial fibres e.g. Jute,
Hemp, Flax.
Animal Tissues
Every animal, whether it is unicellular or multicellular, is capable of
performing all vital functions such as respiration, dgestion, excretion
and reproduction.
On the basis of the functions they perform we can think of different
types of animal tissues, such as epithelial tissue, connective
tissue, muscular tissue and nervous tissue.
Blood is a type of connective tissue, and muscle forms muscular
tissue

1. Epithelial Tissue
• It is the simplest tissue. It is the protective tissue of an animal's
body.
• It covers most organs and cavities within the body. It also forms a
barrier to keep different body systems separate.
• Epithelial cells are closely packed and have a small amount of
cementing material, so there are very little intercellular spaces
present between the cells.
• Due to absence or less of intercellular spaces; blood vessels,
lymph vessels and capillaries are unable to pierce this tissue, so
blood circulation is absent in epithelium.
• Hence cells depend for their nutrients on the underlying
connective tissue.
• A nything entering or leaving thebody must cross at least one
layer of epithelium. As a result, the permeability of the
• cells of various epithelia play an important role in regulating the
exchange of materials between the body and the external
environment and also between different parts
 of the body.
• Epithelium is usually separated from the underlying tissue by an
extracellular fibrous basement membrane.

Types of epithelial tissue on the basis of shapes and functions

Type : Squamous epithelium (scale like)
• Flattened cells, extremely thin,form a delicate lining.
• Common locations :Walls of blood vessels, air sacs of lungs,
esophagus, lining of mouth.
• Function : Diffusion
Type : Stratified Squamous epithelium
• Description : arranged in layers to prevent wear and tear.
• Common locations : skin.
• Function : Diffusion
Type : Columnar (Pillar like)
• Description : Tall slender cells ; may have cilia at its free surface.
• Common locations : Inner lining of intestine, part of respiratory
tract lining(have cilia which move, and their movement pushes
the mucus forward to clear it.
• Function : Secretion, absorption.
Modification of columnar epithelium
Glandular epithelium
• Description : Tall, slender cells, some cells from the free surface
invaginate inside to form secretory cells – goblet cells.
• Common location : Lining of intestine & glands, trachea, bronchi.
• Function : Secretion of mucus and other secretions.
Ciliated columnar epithelium
• Description : Tall , slender cells which possess cilia.
• Common location : Lines the nasal passages, oviducts, terminal
bronchioles.
• Function : Protection, movement of substances in a particular
direction for e.g. of mucus in nasal passages, egg in oviduct.
Type : Cuboidal epithelium
• Description : Cube-like cells may have microvilli at its free
surface.
• Common locations : Lining of kidney tubules, ducts of salivary
glands. It also forms the germinal epithelium of gonads.
• Function : Secretion, absorption, mechanical support, excretion.

Muscular Tissue
• Muscular tissue is distinguished from other tissues by its unique
ability to contract & relax and thereby perform mechanical work.
• It is responsible for movement of body organs and locomotion of
the body.
• The structural unit of muscular tissue is the muscle cells which
because of its elongated shape is also called muscle fibre.
• The contractility is due to the presence of contractile proteins (actin
& myosin) in the muscle fibre.
Skeletal Muscles
• they are mostly attached to bones and help in body movement.
 • They have alternate light and dark bands or striations So called
striated muscles.
• The cells of this tissue are long, cylindrical, unbranched and
multinucleate (having many nuclei).
Smooth Muscles
• Cannot really start them or stop. So also called involuntary
muscles.
• The movement of food in the alimentary canal or the contraction
and relaxation of blood vessels .
• They are also found in the iris of the eye, in ureters and in the
bronchi of the lungs.
• The cells are long with pointed ends (spindle-shaped) and
uninucleate (having a single nucleus). They are also called
unstriated muscles.
Cardiac Muscles
• show rhythmic contraction and relaxation throughout life.
• E.g Heart muscle.
• cells are cylindrical, branched and uninucleate.

Nervous Tissue
 • The nervous tissue, containing densely packed cells called
nerve cells or neurons, is present in the brain, spinal cord and
nerves.

• The neurons are specialized for conduction of nerve impulses.

• They receive stimuli from within or outside the body and conduct
impulses (signals) which travel from one neuron to another
neuron.

• Nerve impulses allow us to move our muscles when we want

to.

• The functional combination of nerve and muscle tissue is

fundamental to most animals.

• This combination enables animals to move rapidly in response

to stimulus.

Each neuron has the following 2 parts

i) cell body with a nucleus and cytoplasm, from which long

thin hair-like parts arise called dendrites
ii) a single long part (process) in the form of a fibre, called
the axon.

The signal that passes along the nerve fibre is called a nerve
impulse. The nerve impulse from the nerve endings in
transmitted to the dendrites of the next nerve cell. Nerve
impulses allow us to move our muscles when we
want to.
2. Connective tissue - The cells of connective tissue are loosely
spaced and embedded into a non-cellular matrix. The matrix may
be solid (as in bone), soft (as in loose connective tissue), or liquid
(as in blood).

• Blood has a fluid (liquid) matrix called plasma, in which red blood
corpuscles (RBCs), white blood corpuscles (WBCs) and platelets
are suspended. The plasma contains proteins, salts and
hormones. Blood flows and transports gases, digested food,
hormones and waste materials to different parts of the body.

• Bone is another example of a connective tissue. It forms the

framework that supports the body. It also anchors the muscles
and supports the main organs of the body. It is a strong and
nonflexible tissue. Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix that
is composed of calcium and phosphorus compounds.
• Ligament -Two bones can be connected to each other. This
tissue is very elastic. It has considerable strength. Ligaments
contain very little matrix.
• Tendons connect muscles to bones and Tendons are fibrous
tissue with great strength but limited flexibility.
• Cartilage has widely spaced cells. The solid matrix is composed
of proteins and sugars. Cartilage smoothens bone surfaces at
joints and is also present in the nose, ear, trachea and larynx.
• Areolar connective tissue is found between the skin and muscles,
around blood vessels and nerves and in the bone marrow. It fills
the space inside the organs, supports internal organs and helps
in repair of tissues.
• Fat storing adipose tissue is found below the skin and between
internal organs. The cells of this tissue are filled with fat globules.
Storage of fats also lets it act as an insulator