Unit 3.

3: Grinding Machines
Unit 3.3

GRINDING MACHINES

3.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Grinding is metal cutting operation which is performed by means of a rotating
abrasive wheel that acts as a tool. It is mostly used to finish workpieces which must show a
high surface quality, accuracy of shape and dimension. There accuracy in dimensions is in the
order of 0.000025 mm. Grinding is also done to machine materials which are too hard for
other machining strategies that use cutting tools.

Principle of Grinding

There are two types of grinding operations are as follows:

1. Rough (or) Non-precision grinding
2. Precision grinding

1. ROUGH GRINDING:
The common forms of rough grinding are snagging and off-hand grinding where the
work is held in the administrator’s hand. The work is squeezed hard against the wheel, or
vice-versa. The accuracy and surface finish obtained are of secondary importance. Trimming
the surface left by sprues and risers on castings, grinding the parting line left on castings,
removing flash on forgings, the excess metal on welds, cracks, as well as imperfections on
alloy steel billets are the example of snag grinding are

2. PRECISION GRINDING:
Precision is concerned with producing good surface finish and high degree of
accuracy. Thus, the wheel or work both are guided in precise paths.
Following are the types of precision grinding:

a) External cylindrical grinding: It delivers a straight or tapered surface on a workpiece.

The work piece must be rotated about their own axis between centres as it passes
lengthwise across the face of a revolving grinding wheel.

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 1

 Unit 3.3: Grinding Machines

External cylindrical grinding

b) Internal cylindrical grinding: It produces internal cylindrical holes and tapers. The
work are chucked and precisely rotated about their own axis. The grinding wheel or,
in the case of little bore holes, the cylinder wheel rotates against the sense of rotation
of the workpiece.

Internal cylindrical grinding

c) Surface grinding: It produces flat surface. The work may be ground by either the
fringe or by the end face of the grinding wheel. The workpiece is reciprocated at a
constant speed underneath or on the end face of the grinding wheel.

Surface grinding

d) Form grinding: It is done with specially shaped grinding wheels that grind the formed
surfaces as in grinding gear teeth, threads, splined shafts, holes and spheres, etc.

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 2

 Unit 3.3: Grinding Machines

Form grinding

3.3.2 TYPES OF ABRASIVES

An Abrasive is a substance that is used for grinding and polishing operations. It
should have uniform physical properties of hardness, toughness and resistance to fracture.
Abrasive may be classified into two principal groups:
1. Natural abrasives
2. Artificial abrasives

1. NATURAL ABRASIVES:
The natural abrasives are obtained from the Earth’s crust. They include sandstone,
emery, corundum and diamond.
o Sandstone is used as abrasive to grind softer materials only.
o Emery is natural alumina. It contains aluminium oxide and iron oxide.
o Corundum is also a natural aluminium oxide.
- It contains greater percentage of aluminium oxide than emery.
- Both emery and corundum have a greater hardness and abrasive action than
sandstone.
o Diamond is the hardest available natural abrasive.
- It is used in making grinding wheels to grind cemented carbide tools.

2. ARTIFICIAL ABRASIVES:
(a) Silicon carbide (SiC):
o Consists of 56 parts of silica sand, 34 parts of powdered coke, 12 parts of saw dust
and 2 parts of salt
o Silicon carbide is greenish-black in colour.
o It is harder and more brittle. For this reason, it is used for grinding materials of low
grinding resistance like cast iron, brass, and copper.
o The code for silicon carbide is ‘C’.

(b) Aluminium oxide (Al2O3):

o Manufactured by heating mineral bauxite, silica, iron oxide, titanium oxide mixed
with ground coke and iron borings
o It is reddish-brown in colour.
o Aluminium oxide abrasive is more suitable for grinding carbon steels and HSS
because of its greater toughness to cope with increased grinding resistance offered.
o The code for aluminium oxide wheels is ‘A’.

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 3

 Unit 3.3: Grinding Machines
(c) Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN):
o This material is one of the hardest materials available, next to diamonds.
o The main feature of the material is that it features a high abrasion resistance and
thermal conductivity that maintains its sharp cutting edges.
o It is brownish to black in colour.
o The code for cubic boron nitride is ‘B’.

3.3.3 GRAIN SIZE, GRADES AND STRUCTURE

o GRAIN SIZE
- Grain size (Grit) defines the size of the abrasive particles and on grinding wheel
specifications it is represented by numerical characters.
- Grain size is inversely proportioned to the Grain size number.

Common abrasive grain size (or) grit number

Group Grain size (or) grit
Coarse 8 10 12 14 16 20 24
Medium 30 36 46 54 60 70
Fine 80 90 100 120 150 180 220
Very fine 240 280 320 400 500 600 700 800 1000

- The grain size in grinding wheel depends on amount of material removal, finish
desired and the hardness of the workpiece material.
- In general coarse grains are used for fast material removal (rough grinding). Fine
grain is used if the work surface finish is important.
- Coarse grain size is used for softer materials, and fine grains for harder and brittle
materials

o GRADE
- Grade defines the hardness and the ability of the bond to retain its abrasives on
any grinding wheel.
- On grinding wheel specification, it is shown by an alphabetic character.
- The terms soft (or) hard refer to the resistance a bond offers to disruption of the
abrasives.

Grade of Grinding wheel

Soft A B C D E F G H
Medium I J K L M N O P
Hard Q R S T U V W X Y Z

- The machining of soft materials is done by only hard wheels whereas hard work
pieces are machined by only soft wheels and the medium hardness work pieces
require medium hard wheels.

o STRUCTURE
- Structure is defined as the average gap between the two consecutive abrasive
particles if the average gap is high then it is an open structure whereas if the
average gap is less than the structure is known as a dense structure.

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 4

 Unit 3.3: Grinding Machines
- A structure is represented by a numeric character on the specification of the
grinding wheel.
- The open structure is used for the machining of soft, tough and ductile materials
whereas dense structure is used for the hard and brittle materials.

Structure of Grinding wheel

Dense 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Open 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

o BOND
- Bond defines the bonding strength between the abrasive particles of the grinding
wheel.
- In grinding wheel specifications various types of bonds are classified which are
represented by alphabetic characters some of them are as follow:
a) Vitrified bond: It is also known as ceramic bonds and has high strength,
hard and brittle like glass. these bonds have a very high temperature
withstanding capacity (1250 to 1300 degree centigrade).
b) Silicate bond: These bonds are made up of sodium silicate. These have
less strength as compared to vitrified bonds. Used in the low heat
generation applications.
c) Rubber bond: As rubber is soft and flexible material so this bond is also
soft and flexible. This bond is used on grinding machine with the flexible
wheel known as buffing.
d) Shellac bond: Elastic bonded wheels
e) Resinoid bond: Wheels are bonded with synthetic resin such as Bakelite
and Redmenol. Used when strength and high speed is required.

Types of bonds and their symbol

Bond Symbol
Vitrified V
Silicate S
Rubber R
Shellac E
Resinoid B

3.3.4 SPECIFICATION OF GRINDING WHEEL

As per Indian standard marking system for grinding wheels IS: 551-1954, the grinding
wheels are designated with various characteristics to give general indication of the hardness
and grit size of the wheel. The specification consists of following six symbols as shown in the
format:
1. Abrasive type
2. Grain size
3. Grade
4. Structure
5. Bond type
6. Manufacturers record

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 5

 Unit 3.3: Grinding Machines

Specification of grinding wheel

3.3.5 TYPES OF GRINDING WHEELS

Types of grinding wheel

1. Straight wheels: Wheel Type Nos.1, 5 & 7 are standard for internal grinding,
cylindrical grinding, tool grinding, off-hand grinding and snagging. The recesses in
Type Nos. 5 and 7 give clearance for the mounting flanges..

2. Cylinder wheel: Wheel Type No.2 is used for surface grinding on both horizontal and
vertical spindle machines with the grinding performed on the face of the wheel.

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 6

 Unit 3.3: Grinding Machines
3. Tapered wheel: Wheel Type No.4 is a A straight wheel that tapers outward towards
the center of the wheel. This arrangement is stronger than straight wheels and can
accept higher lateral loads.

4. Straight Cup wheel: Wheel Type No.6 is a straight cup wheel and is used primarily for
surface grinding on horizontal or vertical spindle machines. It is also useful for off-
hand grinding when a flat surface on the work being ground is desired. Available in
either plain or bevel face.

5. Flaring Cup wheel: Wheel Type No. 11 is a flaring cup wheel used for grinding in the
tool room and in resinoid bonds for snagging. It is supplied with either a plain or
bevelled face.

6. Dish cup: Wheel Type No. 12 is a dish wheel for grinding in the tool room. Its
thinness permits the insertion of the grinding edge of the wheel into narrow places.

7. Saucer wheel: Wheel Type No. 13 is a saucer wheel or saw gummer. Its name is
derived from its use for re-sharpening saws.

8. Diamond wheel: Diamond wheels are grinding wheels with industrial diamonds
bonded to the periphery. They are used for grinding extremely hard materials such as
carbide tips.

3.3.6 CLASSIFICATION OF GRINDING MACHINES

Grinding machines according to the quality of surface finish may be classified as
1. Rough Grinders:
a) Hand grinding machine
b) Bench grinding machine
c) Floor stands grinding machine
d) Flexible shaft grinding machine
e) Swing frame grinding machine
f) Abrasive belt grinding machine

2. Precision Grinders:
a) Cylindrical grinding machines
- Plain
- Universal
- Centerless
b) Internal grinding machines
- Chucking
- Planetary
- Centerless
c) Surface grinding machines
- Horizontal spindle and reciprocating table type
- Horizontal spindle and rotary table type
- Vertical spindle and reciprocating table type
- Vertical spindle and rotary table type
Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 7
 Unit 3.3: Grinding Machines
d) Tool and cutter grinding machines
e) Special grinding machines

3.3.7 CYLINDRICAL GRINDING MACHINE

In cylindrical grinding machine, the workpiece is usually held between dead centers
and rotated by a dog and driver on the face plate. It is used for grinding cylindrical surfaces
which may be parallel, tapered, fillets grooves, shoulders and other formed surfaces of
revolution.

Parts of a Plain cylindrical grinding machine

The main parts of a Plain cylindrical grinding machine are:

o BED: The Bed is made up of cast iron. It is situated horizontally and it is the bottom
part of the grinding machine, provides support to all the grinding parts. When
machine operation starts some vibration occurs therefore base acts as an absorber of
vibrations.

o COLUMN: Column is like a vertical pillar of the machine in this section the abrasive
wheel, wheel head, and wheel guard are kept. The column is also made up of cast
iron.

o WORKTABLE: There are two tables: Lower table and upper table. The lower table
slides on the to provide transverse motion to the work. The upper table has T-slots for
securing headstock and tailstock.

o HEADSTOCK: It holds and drives the workpiece in the chuck

o TAILSTOCK: It can be adjusted and clamped is various positions to accommodate

different length workpieces.

o WHEELHEAD: It carries a grinding wheel and its driving motor is mounted on a

slide at the top and rear of the base. The wheelhead can be moved along the table by
hand (or) power to feed the wheel on the work

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 8

 Unit 3.3: Grinding Machines

Principle of external cylindrical grinding

The work piece is gripped between the headstock and tailstock. The work piece is
rotated at a fast speed between the centers. The grinding wheel, does the actual grinding by
turning at a varied speed from the work piece in the opposite direction, is connected to the
wheel head, which moves the grinder in different patterns such as plunge or traverse
movements. At the same time, the table also moves in the lateral direction.

3.3.8 CENTRELESS GRINDING MACHINE

It is used to grind cylindrical workpiece without actually fixing the workpiece using
centres or a chuck, due to which the work rotation is not provided separately. Its process
consists of wheel, one large grinding wheel and another smaller regulating wheel.

Parts of a Centreless grinding machine

o The centerless grinding machine has a bed mounted on the base, a regulating wheel
housing, Grinding wheel head, work-rest, upper slide, and lower slide; the upper slide
is mounted on the lower slide.
o The Wheel-head is rigidly mounted on the bed of the machine. The regulating wheel
drive unit, its housing, and regulating wheel truing unit of the machine are mounted
on the upper slide. The lower slide of the machine holds the work rest. The upper and
lower slides of the machine are on a swivel plate.

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 9

 Unit 3.3: Grinding Machines
o The workpiece is supported on a blade mounted on the work rest and the top of the
blade is inclined (up to 30°) towards the regulating wheel. The blade angle will be
small for higher diameter work-pieces.
o The thickness of the blade in your machine should be slightly less than the work-piece
diameter, in case of small jobs; during grinding, the position of the work-piece center
in the machine will be slightly above (approximately by half the work-piece diameter)
the line of centers of the grinding and regulating wheel.

Principle of external centreless grinding

Centerless grinding describes a technique that holds the workpiece in the center
between two grinding wheels, which rotate in the same direction (usually clockwise). The
work-piece is supported by the rest blade and held against the regulating wheel by the
grinding force which is mounted at an angle to the plane of grinding wheel. The regulating
wheel keeps the workpiece in place and turns it for grinding by the grinding wheel. This
allows the grinding wheel to remove any excess material that remains after grinding in the
first pass.

FORMS OF CENTRELESS GRINDING

Various forms of centreless grinding

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 10

 Unit 3.3: Grinding Machines
The three forms of centerless grinding are:
1. Through-Feed: In this process, the workpiece is fed through the center of the two
grinding wheels. This technique is best used for parts that are cylindrical in shape.
The regulating wheel can be set at such an angle that it pulls the material through the
grinding process, without the need for any separate feeding mechanism.

2. End-Feed: In this process, the workpiece is fed into the grinding system until it hits an
end stop. After that, the grinding process happens and then the workpiece goes back
out in the opposite direction it was fed. This process works well for workpieces that
are tapered.

3. In-Feed: The workpiece can have an independent outer diameter over the entire
length, and the improved grinding wheel can be used to grind each part of the
workpiece (or) crush the entire workpiece. The process is most useful for workpieces
that have shoulders and other forms such as hourglass shape.

3.3.9 SURFACE GRINDING MACHINE

Horizontal spindle reciprocating table Horizontal spindle rotating table

Vertical spindle reciprocating table Vertical spindle rotating table

Surface grinding machine is used to produce a flat surface with a high surface finish.
They are also capable of grinding irregular, curved, convex and concave surfaces. Surface
grinders are classified according to whether they have horizontal or vertical grinding wheel
with reciprocating tables and rotating tables. Following are the types of surface grinders.

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 11

 Unit 3.3: Grinding Machines
1. Horizontal spindle reciprocating table
2. Horizontal spindle rotating table
3. Vertical spindle reciprocating table
4. Vertical spindle rotating table

Main parts of a horizontal surface grinder

The main parts of a horizontal spindle surface grinding machine are:

o BASE: It is the most important part of the surface grinding machine which is used to
support the entire body of the machine. It is generally made of cast iron.

o COLUMN: A vertical column is the part of the surface grinding machine where the
wheel head is mounted. It also has a driving mechanism through which columns can
be raised or lowered.

o SADDLE: It is the frame that keeps the table raised. It is used to provide cross feed to
the workpiece. A saddle can be moved by a cross feed hand wheel.

o TABLE: It is fitted on the saddle which has 'T' slots for clamping purposes. A table
can be moved by hand traversing the wheel.

o WHEEL HEAD: It is mounted on a column that can be raised or lowered by rotating

the hand wheel to allow workpieces of different heights and the wheel can be set for
the depth of cuts.

o ABRASIVE WHEEL: This is the main tool that is used to remove the material from
the surface of the workpiece. It is coated with abrasives and thereby the accuracy
obtained is very high.

o WHEEL GUARD: It acts as a cover on the grinding wheel to avoid accidents.

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 12

 Unit 3.3: Grinding Machines
3.3.10 SELECTION OF GRINDING WHEELS
The proper selection of grinding wheels is very important for getting good results i.e.,
to obtain a better finish and at the same time having more life of the wheel. In order to meet
all these requirements, the various elements that influence the process must be considered.
Selection mainly depends upon the following factors:
1. Constant factors.
2. Variable factors
1. CONSTANT FACTORS:
(a) Work material: This will influence the selection of Abrasive material, Grain size (grit
number), Grade and Structure.
(i) Abrasive material:
- SiC is recommended for low tensile strength material such as non-ferrous
metals, bronze, brass, copper, aluminium and plastic materials.
- Al203 is better for tough materials having high tensile strength like mild steel,
alloy steel, high speed annealed malleable iron, tough bronze, wrought iron.

(ii) Grain size:

- Coarse grain size is used for softer materials, and fine grains for harder and
brittle materials.
- Coarser grain is used for high rate of stock removal. Fine grain is used if the
work surface finish is important.

(iii) Grade:
- For harder materials, soft grade and medium grade and for softer materials,
harder grade is preferred.

(iv) Structure:
- For harder materials, the chips are of small size and also the rate of metal
removal is low. Thus, a dense structure is desirable for it.
- For softer materials, the open structure is prescribed as the rate of metal
removal is high and size of chips is also big.

(b) Area of contact: When the area of contact in grinding operation is large, total grinding
pressure is distributed over a larger area and the pressure per unit area is less and hence a
softer wheel is needed for it. For internal grinding where arc of contact is more, softer wheel
is used and for external grinding, harder wheel.

(c) Type of Grinding machine: Heavy and rigid machines demand the softer grade of wheel
than the light machines. If condition of grinding machine is such as to cause vibration, harder
grade is used compared to one where complete freedom from vibrations is there.

(d) Finish and Accuracy required: For high degree of accuracy and fine finish requirement,
small sized grain wheels should be used.

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 13

 Unit 3.3: Grinding Machines
2. VARIABLE FACTORS:
(a) Wheel and work speed: It influences the selection of grade and bond. The higher the
wheel speed in relation with the work speed, the softer the wheel should be. Vitrified bond is
usually used for speeds upto 1800 m/min and rubber, shellac and resinoid bond for speeds
over 1800 m/min.
𝜋𝐷𝑁
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑚/𝑚𝑖𝑛
1000
where, D – Diameter in mm
N – Spindle speed in rpm
(b) Condition of grinding machine: Spindle loose in the bearings, and insecure and shaky
foundations would necessitate the use of harder wheels that would be the case if the machine
were in better operating condition.

(c) Personal factor: An unskilled worker can’t handle soft wheels and he is likely to break
them. Thus, unskilled worker should be allowed to work only in those conditions which
require a hard wheel.

Prof. Shiva Krishna J, Dept. of Mech Engg, AITD Assagao, Goa 14