NAME:AGUJEFFREYCHIDOZI

E
MATRICNo:200065
DEPARTMENT:COMPUTERENGINEERI
NG
COURSE:CPE413

I
NTRODUCTI
ON

Themi cropr ocessor

,whichev ol
v edfrom thei nventi
onsoft hetr
ansistorand
thei
nt egr atedcircui
t,i
soneoft hei consoft hepr esentinfor
[Link]
perv
asi v enessoft hemicroprocessori nthisagegoesf arbeyondt hewil
dest
i
magi nat ionatt heti
meoft hef i
rstmi [Link] thefastest
comput erst othesimplesttoys,themi croprocessorisf [Link]
micropr ocessort odayhasov er1bi ll
i
ont ransist
or sonsomeoft hemost
power ful dev i
ces.

Ami croprocessorisat i
ny,enor mouslypower fulhighspeedel ectronicbrain
etchedonasi nglesili
consemi conductorchipwhi chcont ainst hebasi clogi
c,
storageandar i
thmet i
cfunctionsofacomput er.I
tthinksf orthecomput er
and, l
i
keat raf
fi
ccop, coordinat esit
soperat i
[Link]
i
nstructionsf r
om inputdev i
cesl i
kekeyboards, di
skst hensendst hem ov era
bussy stem consisti
ngofmi croscopicetchedconduct ive"wiring"tobe
processedbyi t
sarithmeticcal culat
orandl [Link] esultsare
tempor ari
lystoredinmemor ycel lsandreleasedinat i
medsequencet hrough
thebussy stem tooutputdev icessuchasCRTScr eens, networ ks,orpr i
nters.
Insomecases, t
heterms' CPU' and'mi
cropr ocessor'areusedi nt
er changeably
todenot et hesamedev i
ce.

Thedi
ff
erentway
sinwhi
chmi
cropr
ocessor
sar
ecat
egor
izedar
e:

a)CI
SC(
Compl
exI
nst
ruct
ionSetComput
ers)

b)RI
SC(
ReducedI
nst
ruct
ionSetComput
ers)

c)VLI
W(Ver
yLongI
nst
ruct
ionWor
dComput
ers)

d)Superscal
arpr
ocessor
s

GENESI
SOFTHEMI
CROPROCESSOR

I
n1970, I
nteli
ntroducedthefirstdynamicRAM, whi
chi ncreasedICmemory
[Link]
ifi
edI
ntelasani nnovat
ive
youngcompany .Howev er
,theirnextproduct,
themicroprocessor,
wasmore
thansuccessf
ul byset
tinginmot
ionanengi
neer
ingf
eatt
hatdr
amat
ical
l
y
alt
eredthecourseofelectr
oni
cs.

Thepr ojectt hatproducedthemicroprocessoror i

ginatedin1969,when
NipponCal culati
ngMachi neCorporati
onappr oachedI ntel
todesign12
custom chi psf orit
snewBusi com 141-PFprinti
ngcal culat
[Link],t
he
Int
el engineerassi gnedtotheproj
ect,beli
evedt hedesi gnwasnotcost
effecti
[Link] ssolutionwast osi
mplifythedesignandpr oducea
programmabl eprocessorcapabl
eofcr eat
ingasetofcompl exspeci
al-
purposecal culat
orchips.

TogetherwithFederi
coFagi
n,l
aterthefounderofZil
og,Hoffcameupwi t
ha
four-
chipdesign;aROM f
orcustom appli
cati
onprograms,aRAM f or
processi
ngdat a,
anI/Odevi
ce,andanunnamed4- bi
tcent
ralprocessi
nguni
t
whichwouldbecomeknownasa" mi cr
oprocessor
."

Busicom, i
nit
ial
lyskeptical
,fi
nall
ygav eIntel [Link] nemont hslat
er,
Int
elsuccessfull
ycompl et
[Link] kably,t
hefour -
bit4004
microprocessor,composedof2, 300t r
ansi storsetchedonat inychi p,coul
d
execute60,000instructi
onspersecond, maki ngitaspower ful asthemassi ve
ENIAC,butdespi t
et heBusicom success,Int elit
selfwasdividedov erthe
microprocessor'
sbr oaderappli
cati
[Link] negotiatedareturnoft he
Busicom designrightsandcommi t
tedtodev elopingthemicr oprocessor '
s
potenti
al.

Thefir
stful
lyfunct
ional
4004partswer
eav ai
l
ableinMarch1971,wi
tht
he
fi
rstpubl
icannouncementi
nNov ember1971;anewspaperheadl
i
nesays
“Announci
ngaNewEr aofI
ntegr
atedEl
ectr
onics”
.

I
nt el4004wast hefi
rstcommer cial
l
yav ai
lablesingl
e-chi
pmi cropr
ocessorin
history.I
twasa4- bi
tCPUdesi gnedforusagei ncalculat
ors,desi
gnedf or
"embeddedappl i
cat
ions".Cl
ockedat740KHz, the4004execut edupt o
92,000si nglewordi
nst r
ucti
onspersecond, couldaccess4KBofpr ogram
memor yand640by [Link] nt
el4004wasapar tofMCS-4chi pset
,
whi chincludedthef
ollowingchi
ps:

i
.4001-256-
bitmaskROM and4-
bitI
/Odev
ice,

i
i
.4002-320-
bitRAM and4-
bitI
/Odev
ice,

i
i
i.4003-10-
bitshi
ftr
egi
ster
,

i
v.4008and4009-st
andar
dmemor
yandI
/Oi
nter
faceset
..

EVOLUTI
ON
Intheear l
ieststages,micr
opr ocessorsmainlyfill
edtheneedsofembedded
[Link] racet
hehi storyofmicroprocessor,
wewi l
lexplor
eit
s
evolutionandt hedriv
ingforcesbehi ndt
hisev oluti
[Link]
utionof
micropr ocessor scanbedi v
idedi nt
o5gener ations.

 Fi
rstGener
ati
on(
1971-
73)

Themi croprocessor st hatwer eint

roducedf r
om 1971t o1973wer e
ref
erredt oast hef i
rstgener ati
onsy [Link]-
generati
on
micropr ocessor sprocessedt heiri
nstruct
ionsser i
all
yi.e.
,theyfetched
theinstruction, decodedi t
,andthenexecut edi t
.Whent heinstructi
on
wascompl eted, t
hemi croprocessorupdatedt heinst
ructi
onpoi nter
andf etchedt henexti nst ructi
on,performi
ngt hissequentialdri
l
l f
or
eachi nstructionint urn.

TheInt
el4004isacompl et
e4- bi
tparal
lelcentr
alpr
ocessi
ngunit(
CPU)
.
The4004easil
yinter
faceswithkeyboards,swit
ches,di
spl
ays,
AD
conv
erter
s,pr
int
ers,andotherperi
pheralequipment.

TheCPUcandi r
ect l
yaddress4K8- bi
tinst
ruct
ionwor dsofpr ogram
memor yand5120bi t
sofdat ast
orageRAM.16I ndexregistersare
prov i
dedfortempor arydatastor
[Link] o164-bitinputportsand16
4-bitoutputport
smayal sobedirectl
yaddressed.The4004i s
fabricat
edwi t
hP- channelsil
i
congat eMOSt [Link] sthe
blockdiagram oft he4004.

TheI ntel 4004wasf ollowedi n1972byt heI ntel 8008, t

hewor ld'
sf i
rst
8-bitmi croprocessor.The8008i snotanext ensi onoft he4004desi gn,
butt hecul minati
onofasepar atedesi gnpr ojectatI nt el
, ari
singf rom a
cont ractwithComput erTer mi nal sCor porat i
onofSanAnt onioTX, fora
chipt heywer edesigning.I n1969, CTCcont r
act edt wocompani es,
IntelandTexasI nstr
ument s, tomakeasi ngle-chi pimpl ement ati
on,
knownast heCTC1201.I nl ate1970, TexasI nstr ument sdr oppedout
beingunabl etomaker eli
abl epar t
s.In1970, withI ntel yettodel i
v erthe
par t
,CTCopt edtouset heirowni mplement at i
oni ntheDat apoi nt2200,
usingt raditi
onalTTLl ogici nst [Link]'sver si
onoft he1201
mi croprocessorar r
ivedi nlat e1971, butwast ool ate, sl
ow, and
requiredanumberofaddi tional suppor [Link] nterestin
usingi [Link] i
ginallycont ractedI ntelfort hechi p,andwoul d
hav eowedt hem $50,000f ort heirdesi gnwor [Link] oidpay ingf ora
chipt heydi dnotwant ,CTCr eleasedI ntel f
rom t hei rcont ractand
all
owedt hem f r
eeuseoft hedesi [Link] mar ket editast he8008i n
Apr i
l,1972, asthewor ld'
sf irst8- bitmicr oprocessor .Itwast hebasi s
 f
orthefamous"
Mark-
8”comput
erki
tadv
ert
isedi
nthemagazi
neRadi
o
-
Elect
roni
csi
n1974.

Therewer
eot
hermi
cropr
ocessor
sint
hemar
ketdur
ingt
hesame
peri
od:

i
.Rockwel
lInt
ernat
ional
’
sPPS-
4(4bi
ts)

i
i
.Nat
ional
Semi
conduct
or’
sIMP-
16(
16bi
ts)

Theywer
efabr
icat
edusingPMOSt echnol
ogywhi
chprovi
dedlowcost
,
sl
owspeedandlowoutputcur
rent
[Link]
blewi
th
TTL.

 SecondGener
ati
on(
1974-
78)

Byt helate1970s,enoughtr
ansi
storswereavai
lableontheICtousher
i
nt hesecondgener ati
onofmicr
oprocessorsophisti
cati
[Link]
secondgener ati
onmar kedt
hebeginni
ngofv er
yef f
ici
ent8bit
micr opr
[Link]
ocessorswer e:

i
.Int
el’
s8080

i
i
.Mot
orol
a’
s6800and6809

i
i
[Link]
l
og’
sZ80

Thisgener at
ioni sdef inedbyov erlappedf etch,decode, andexecute
steps(Comput er1996) .Asthef i
rstinstr
uct i
onispr ocessedi nthe
executi
onuni t
,thesecondi nstructionisdecodedandt het hi
rd
i
nstructionisfet [Link] sti
nct i
onbet weent hef i
rstandsecond
generationdev iceswaspr imaril
yt heuseofnewersemi conductor
technologytof abr i
catet [Link] snewt echnologyr esultedina
fi
ve-fol
di ncr
easei ninstructi
on,execut i
on, speed,andhi gherchip
densiti
[Link] emanuf acturedusi ngNMOSt echnol [Link]
s
technologyof f
er edf asterspeedandhi gherdensi t
yt hanPMOS.I ti
s
TTLcompat ible.

I
ntel
8080

I
ntel
’sexperi
encewiththe8008prov i
dedat r
emendoussour ceofideas
onhowt oimproveonthemi cr
[Link]
tingint
hemi ddl
eof
1972,t
heseideaswereusedt odefinetheInt
el8080mi cr
oprocessor.
Theimprovementsinthe8080includedmor einstr
ucti
ons,a64-KB
addressspace, 256I /Opor ts,16- bitari
thmet i
cinst
ructions, and
vectoredinterr
upt [Link] gner soft he8080i ncl
udedsomeoft he
keyindivi
dualsr esponsi bl
ef ort he4004and8008, Feder icoFaggi nand
Masat oshiShima.The8080wasi ntr
oducedi nearl
y1974wi t
hapr i
ce
tagof$360.The8080wasdesi gnedin6- micronMOSwi t
hn- type
transi
stor(NMOS)t echnol ogyandr equired6,000transistor s.The40-
pinpackageal lowedf orsepar ateaddr essanddat [Link] i
rst
8080r anat2MHzandwasr at edat0. 64mi l
li
onsofi nstruct i
onsper
second( MIPS).Unl iket he4004and8008, t
he8080wasqui ckly
adoptedbydesi gner [Link] ncor poratedintonumer ouspr oducts,t
he
mostsi gnif
icantbei ngt heAl tair8800mi crocomputerki tfrom a
companycal l
edMI [Link] tai rshowedt herewasamar ketfor
mi cr
oprocessor sbey ondt radi ti
onal embeddedappl ications.

Mot
orol
a’
s6800

Mot orolaenteredthemi croprocessormar ketin1974wi ththe8-bi

t
6800.The6800r equi
red4, 000transi
storsandwasf abri
catedinNMOS
technology.The6800of feredsomesi gnifi
cantbenef i
tsoverthe8080,
i
ncludingi mprovedper f
or manceandt heneedf oronlyasingl
e5- v
olt
supply.The6800cont ainedt wo8-bitgeneral
pur poseregi
stersanda
singleindexregister,
whi chmeantt hatitoperatedondat apri
mar i
lyin
memor [Link] hememor ytechnologyatt hetimewasf asterthan
themi croprocessor,accessingmemor ydidnoti mposeaper formance
penalty.

Motorol
afir
stproducedacust om versi
onofthe6800f orGeneral
MotorsandlaterforFor
[Link] hebeginni
ngofahugemar ketf
or
embeddedpr ocessorsi
ncars,whichMot or
olahassincedominated.
Vari
antsofthe6800hav ebeenintroducedoverthey
ear s,
incl
udingt
he
6809in1977, t
he6801,the68HC11, andthe68HC16.

Zi
l
og’
sZ80

FagginandShi malef
tInt
elin1975t oform Zil
og,whi
chwoul dproduce
theZ80.The2. 5-MHzZil
ogZ80wasr eleasedin1976andoffered
compatibil
it
ywi t
hthe8080,alongwithmanysi gni
fi
cantenhancements.
Theinstruct
ionsetwasexpandedandi ncludedblockmov eandblock
I/Oi
nstructi
[Link] obett
ersupport
i
nterr
uptsandoper at
ingsystems( OSs).

TheZ80i nter
facesi
mpl
if
iedthesy
stem desi
gnbyprov
idi
ngdynamic
random accessmemory(DRAM)refr
eshsignal
sandanon-chi
pcl
ock
 cir
cui
t,whichcoul dbeconnect eddir
ect l
ytoanext er
nalcr
y [Link]
Z80wouldout sellthe8080asi tbecamet hemi cropr
ocessorofchoi ce
i
nmanyappl [Link] gni
ficantmi cr
ocomputerappl i
cati
on,
theTandyTRS- 80, wasintr
[Link]- 80cont aineda
Z80,4-
KBRAM, 4-KBROM, akeyboard,abl ackandwhi t
ev i
deodi spl
ay,
andatapecasset te,
allf
or$[Link] esoldinthef irstf
ew
months,exceedingal lpr
ojecti
[Link] hi
sday ,t
heZ80cont inuest obe
apopularmicropr ocessorinembeddedappl icati
ons.

 Thi
rdGener
ati
on(
1979-
80)

Thet hi
rdgenerat ion,intr
oducedin1979, wasr epresentedbyIntel
’s
8086andt heZi logZ8000, whichwere16bi tprocessor swith
minicomput er
-l
ikeper [Link]
dgener ati
oncameaboutasI C
tr
ansistorcount sappr oached250,[Link] orola’sMC68020, for
example, i
ncorpor atedanonchi pcachef orthefirstti
meandt hedepth
ofthepipeli
nei ncr easedt ofi
veormor [Link] sgenerati
onof
microprocessorswasdi ff
erentfr
om theprev i
ousonesi nthatallmajor
workstati
onmanuf acturersbegandevelopingthei rownRISC-based
microprocessorar chi
tectures(Computer,1996).Thi sageisdominated
by16–bi t
smi cr oprocessor s

I
ntel
’
s8086

The8086mi cr
opr ocessorwasst ructuredasabusi nterf
aceuni t(BIU)
andanexecut i
onuni t(EU).TheBI Uhandl edi nstructionandoper and
fetchesf rom memor [Link] Uf edopcodest oandr equestedoper ands
from theEU, whi chper formedt hei nstr
uct [Link] UandEU
const i
tutedasi mpl epi peli
ne, withtheBI Uf etchingi nstruct
ions
concur rentlywithpr ocessingi ntheEU.The8086wassour ce-code-
compat i
bl ewitht he8080/ 8085.I tusedv ar i
abl e-l
engt hinst
ructi
onsof
oneormor ebytesf etchedintot hepr ef [Link] our16-bit
registerscoul dbeusedasei ther16- bitor8- bitregisters.The8086
i
nst i
tutedanunusual form ofsegment edaddr [Link] thi
nasegment ,
addr essingwasl imitedt [Link] essi ngwasexpandedt o1MBby
theaddi tionoft hesegmentr egistershiftedbyf ourt oa16- bi
taddr ess.

The80286extendedaddressi
ngto16MB, butst
il
lthr
oughsegment s
ofnomor et
han64KBandonl yi
n“pr
otected”modeasopposedt ot
he
8086’
s“real
”mode.The8086hadacompani onf
loati
ng-poi
ntchip,t
he
8087.The8087intr
oducedInt
el’
s80-
bitfl
oati
ng-
pointformat,
greatl
y
 i
nfl
uenci
ngt
heI
EEEf
loat
ing-
poi
ntst
andar
d754,
issuedi
n1985.

Mot
orol
a’
s68000

The68000hadamor eor t
hogonal archit
ecturethant [Link]
68000f etchedi nstr
uct ionsofoneormor e16-bitwor ds.Itfeatured32-
bitaddressanddat ar egisters,pr
ov i
dingal i
nearaddr essspaceanda
pathtof uturefull32-bitimplement ations.The68000hadasi mpl e
pipel
ine,ov er
lappinginst ructi
onfetchandexecut ion.The68010added
vi
rtualmemor ysuppor tthroughtheabi li
tytorestartinstructi
onsona
pagef ault
.The68020wasoneoft hef i
rsttr
ue32- bitprocessor swi t
ha
tr
uepi peli
ne, overl
appi ngoper andaccesswi t
hinternal [Link]
al
sowasoneoft hefirstmi croprocessor swit
hanon- chipi nst
ruction
cacheof256by tes.

Zi
l
og’
sZ8000

TheZ8000wasZi l
og’sfol
low-ontot
[Link] er
,the
Z8000sacri
ficedthecompat i
bil
it
yoftheZ80t omakebet teruseofa
16-
bitext
ernalbustomemor yandtomaket heinst
ructi
onset
ort
hogonalwithrespecttoit
s16gener al
-pur
poseregist
ers.15

TheZ80’ s8- bitopcodescoul dnotencodemor ethanoneoft he16

register
sasanoper and.TheZ8000’ s16-bitregisterscouldalsobe
usedast hirty-two8-bi tregi
sters,eight32-bitregisters,andev enas
four64-bi tregister
s.TheZ8000wasnotpi peli
nedbecausei twasf elt
thatthef ixed16- bitinstructi
onf ormatandsi mpl eaddr esscalcul at
ion
eli
mi natedt heneedf orpr efetchi
ng.TheZ8000wasal sosingul arin
usinghar dwi redlogici nsteadofmi crocodeROM, i
nspi teofincr easing
theinstruct i
onsetf r
om 128i nstructi
onsi ntheZ80t [Link] smay
havecont ri
but edtoit slackofsuccess, si
ncei tsuf f
eredf r
om i niti
al
bugs.

 Four
thGener
ati
on(
1981-
1995)

Asthewor kstati
oncompaniesconvertedf r
om commer ci
al
micropr
ocessor stoin-
housedesi
gns,mi croprocessorsenteredthei
r
four
thgenerationwithdesi
gnssurpassingami l
li
ont r
ansist
[Link]
eramarkedt hebeginni
ngof32bitsmi [Link]
elintr
oduced
432,whichwasbi tprobl
emati
candt henI ntel80386wasl aunched.
Motorol
aintroduced68020/68030.

Theywer
efabr
icat
edusi
ngl
ow-
powerv
ersi
onoft
heHMOSt
echnol
ogy
cal
l
[Link]
orol
aint
roduced32-
bitRI
SCpr
ocessor
scal
l
ed
MC88100.

I
ntel'sfir
st32-bi
tmi cr oprocessorwastheiAPX432, whichwas
i
ntroducedi n1981butwasnotacommer [Link]
advancedcapabi li
ty-basedobj ect-
ori
ent
edar chit
ecture,butpoor
performancecompar edtocont emporar
yarchitecturessuchasIntel
'
s
own80286( intr
oduced1982) ,whi
chwasal mostf ourti
mesasf aston
ty
pical benchmarktest s.

Mot orola'
ssuccesswi t
ht he68000ledtot
heMC68010,whichadded
vir
tual memorysuppor t.TheMC68020,int
roducedi
n1984addedfull
32-bitdataandaddr essbuses.The68020becamehugelypopul
arin
theUNI Xsupermi crocomput ermar
ket,
andmanysmallcompanies
produceddeskt op-si
zesy st
ems.

TheMC68030wasi ntr
oducednext, i
mprovingupont heprevi
ous
designbyi ntegrat
ingtheMMUi nt
ot [Link] i
nuedsuccess
l
edt otheMC68040, whichi
ncludedanFPUf orbett
ermat h
performance.A68050f ail
edtoachieveitsperfor
mancegoal sandwas
notreleased, andthefoll
ow-upMC68060wasr el
easedi nt
oamar ket
saturatedbymuchf asterRI
SCdesi gns.The68kf amilyfadedfr
om the
desktopint heearly1990s.

Otherl
argecompani
esdesignedthe68020andf ol
low-
onsint
o
[Link]
,thereweremore68020si
n
embeddedequipmentthanther
ewer eIntel
Pent
iumsinPCs

Al
phaandPower
PC

TheAl pha21064andPower PC601besti llustratethecont rasting

desi gnsoft hev ar
iousRI SCCPUsandar econsi deredbelowi nsome
det ail
.Bot hprocessorswer eload-storear chitectures,wit
h32- bit
i
nst ructionsandt wo32/ 64-
bitregi
sterf i
lesf orf l
oatingpointand
i
nt [Link] phadesi gnersfocusedonv eryf astclocks,asi mpl e
i
nst ructionsetthatwoul denablefastclocki ng, anddeeppi [Link]
Power PCi nst
ructi
onsethadpower fulinst r
uct i
onst hatdidmor ein
eachcl [Link] hr
eef actorsthataffectper f
or mance,Al phachose
tor educet heclockper iodandCPIatt heexpenseoft henumberof
i
nst [Link] PC601t ookamor ebal ancedappr oach. The
clockr ateofaCPUdependsont heamountofl ogicineachpi peli
ne
[Link], l
ongerpi peli
nesreducet heamountofl ogicineachst age
andal lowf asterclocks.
Unfort
unately
,branchesinpr
ogram execut
ioncausegreaterpenal
ti
es
i
ndeeppi peli
[Link]
ore,
predi
cti
onofbr ancheshasbecome
cr
it
icaltohighperfor
mance.

Dur
ingthi
stime,Nati
onalSemiconductori
ntroducedav
erysi
milar16-
bi
tpinout,
32-bi
tint
ernal
mi cr
oprocessorcal
ledtheNS16032,t
hef ul
l
32-
bitv
ersi
onnamedt [Link] er,Nati
onal

Semiconduct orproducedt heNS32132, whichall

owedt woCPUst o
resi
deont hesamememor ybuswi t
hbui l
tinar bi
trat
[Link]
appearanceofRI SCpr ocessorsli
ketheAM29000andMC88000whi ch
nomor eexi stnowi nf
luencedthearchitectureofthef i
nalcore,
the
NS32764. From 1993t o2003,the32-bitx86ar chi
tecturesbecame
i
ncreasinglydomi nantindesktop,l
aptop, andservermar ketsandthese
microprocessorsbecamef ast
erandmor ecapabl e.

 Fi
ft
hGener
ati
on(
1995-Ti
lldat
e)

Mi cr
opr ocessorsint heirfi
fthgenerat
ion,empl oy
eddecoupl ed
superscal arprocessi ng,andtheirdesignsoonsur passed10
mi l
li
ont ransist
[Link] hi
sgener ati
on,PCsar ealow-mar gin,
highvolume- businessdomi nat
edbyasi ngl
emi cropr
ocessor .Thi
s
aget heemphasi sisoni ntroducingchipsthatcarryon-chip
functionali
tiesandi mpr ovement si
nthespeedofmemor yandI/O
dev i
cesal ongwi thintroducti
onof64- bitmicropr
ocessors.

I
ntell
eadst
heshowherewithPent
ium,Cel
eronandver
yrecent
ly
dual
andquadcorepr
ocessorswor
kingwit
hupt o3.
5GHzspeed.

While64- bitmi croprocessordesi gnshav ebeeni nusei nseveral

mar ketssi ncet heear l
y1990st heear l
y2000ssawt hei ntr
oduction
of64- bitmi croprocessor st ar
get edatt hePCmar [Link] t
hAMD' s
i
ntroduct ionofa64- bitar chit
ectur ebackwar ds- compat i
blewithx86,
x86-64f ol lowedbyI ntel'
snearf ull
ycompat ible64-bitextensions,
thedeskt oper [Link] hv ersionscanr un32- bi
tlegacy
applicationswi thoutanyper f
ormancepenal tyaswel lasnew64- bi
t
softwar [Link] thoper ati
ngsy stemsWi ndowsXPx64, WindowsVi sta
x64, Windows7x64, Linux, BSD, andMacOSXt hatrun64- bi
tnativ
e,
thesof twar eisalsogear edt ofullyutil
izethecapabi lit
iesofsuch
processor [Link] et o64bi t
si smor et hanjustani ncreasei n
regi
st ersi zef rom theIA- 32asi tal sodoubl est henumberof
gener al
-pur poser egist
ers.
Themov eto64bi tsbyPower PCpr ocessor shadbeeni ntended
sincet hepr ocessor s'designi nt heearl
y90sandwasnotamaj or
causeofi ncompat i
bili
[Link]
ersareext endedas
areallr el
ateddat apat hway s, but ,
aswast hecasewi thIA-32,bot
h
fl
oatingpoi ntandv ectoruni tshadbeenoper at
ingatorabov e64
bitsforsev eralyear s.In2011, ARM introducedanew64- bitARM
archi
tect [Link] atestdev elopmenti st heintr
oductionofdual -
core
processor sf rom bot [Link] -coreprocessorshav e
twof ullCPUcor esoper ati
ngof fofoneCPUpackagei nessence
enablingasi ngl
epr ocessort oper formt heworkoft wopr ocessors.

MI
PSandHP

Ati
tsi
ntroduct
ionin1992,
theMI
PSR4000wasoneoft hefastest
si
ngl
e-chi
pprocessors,
wit
hasuperpi
pel
i
ned64-
bitar
chitect
ure.

Thisarchit
ect
urewasengender edbythehigh-
endgraphi
csmar
ket
thatSil
iconGraphi
[Link]
nalclock(
50MHz)was
doubledintheCPUt ocl
ockthedeeppi pel
i
nesat100MHz.

Addressanddatabuseswere64- bitandmulti
plexed.TheR4000
hadseparatedir
ect-
mappedinstructi
onanddatacachesof8KB
andasecond-level
cachecontr
[Link]
ati
onsof
theR4000wer emadeinthefoll
owi ngyear
sandt heMI PS
archi
tect
urebecamepopulari
nt heembeddedmar ket
place.

HPmanuf acturedit
sownpr ocessorsf orit
swor kstat
ions.
Therefore,PA-RISCwasmor epropr i
etarythanMI [Link]
PA-RISC7100and7200wer e32-bitprocessorswi thexter
nalcache
thatrequir
edsy stemstousev er
y-highspeedst aticRAMs( SRAMs).
The7200, producedin1994, hadtwoi ntegerunitsandoneFPU.I t
dispatchedtwoi nst
ruct
ionstoanyoft het hreeunits.

Thef i
rst64-bitarchitectur
ef r
om HPwast he180-MHzPA- RI SC
8000,pr oducedi [Link] tti
mei tsur
passedDi gi
t al
’s333-
MHzAl pha21164i nintegerperfor
[Link] t
ernformostof
the1990shasbeent hateverynewpr ocessori
ntroducedt endst o
surpassi t
sol derri
[Link] yexcepti
onhasbeenAl pha, which
hashel dthet opspotf ormostoft [Link] hreattot hese
tradi
ti
onal RISCv endor sistheproli
fer
ati
onofx86andt he
encroachmentofWi ndowsNTi ntotheUNI Xmarket.