Generation of Electric Energy from

Renewable Resources
(EPM 651)

Prof. Dr. Mostafa I. Marei

1
 Distributed Generator (DG)
Definition of DG:
DG is an electric power source connected
directly to the distributed network or to
the site of the customer
Feature of DG:
1) Not planned (dispatched)

2) Connected to distribution network (to LV or MV

according to its rating)
3) Rated Power < 300 MW
50 – 300 MW
2
 Technologies of DG
1) Photovoltaic (PV)
2) Solar system
3)- Wind turbines it may be:
a) DG if connected to distribution network
b) Not DG if connected to transmission
4)- Diesel engines - not renewable
5)- Fuel cells (FC) - not renewable
6)- Micro Turbines:
✓Not renewable
✓High speed generator (50000 rpm)
✓Small size
✓30 KW up to 50 MW
3
7) Storage Systems:
a) Batteries / Fuel cell
✓Fuel cells using hydrogen to offer longer cycle & higher
power than normal batteries.
✓Output is water while no chemical reaction inside
✓ 100 MW Fuel cell station is available
b) Ultra Capacitator:
✓ 2.5 v , 3000 Farad
✓ Can keep energy for a month as it has high leakage
resistance
c) Fly wheel
✓ Very large dimension Ultra Cap.
✓ Used to stabilize the grid

4
 Benefits of DG
1) Short construction time & low capital cost for small plants
2) Deferring or upgrading infrastructure
3) Standby capacity or peak use capacity (peak shaving)
4) Increasing reliability
5) Reducing of losses in electric network ➔ operation cost is
reduced
6) Improving power quality level
7) Combined generation of heat & electricity.

Utility

Load Load
DG Load
5
 Classification of DG
It could be classified according to Owner of DG:
➢ Utility
➢ Customer
Also, it could be classified according to interfacing (I/F)
technology:
➢ Rotating Machines
-Diesel Generator is based on Synchronous M/C
-Wind is based on Induction generator (Cage, Wound
rotor, Doubly fed), Synchronous generator (PMSG and
other types).
➢ Power electronics (Static converter)
- PV
- Wind
- Fuel cells
- Storage energy systems 6
 Static Synchronous Generator (SSG)
In this case, electricity is generated using a non rotating (static)
inverter which is synchronized with the grid.

Grid
PCC
Load
Supply

P* Q* V* User
commend
DG I/F
Inverter Control
SSG

DG Source: PV, Battery, FC, …

PCC = point of common coupling
7
Functions of SSG:

1) Control of active power feed from DG to the grid

2) Control of reactive power ( Q) feed from DG to the grid
a) Q = 0 ⇒ DG works at unity power factor (UPF) ⇒ small
inverter & low cost
b) Q = Qload ⇒ utility works at UPF ⇒ large inverter & high cost
c) Voltage regulating Vpcc through reactive power control
3) Synchronization with the grid at Vpcc
Notes:
✓The SSG can work as a PQ or PV with zero inertia.
✓A separate control loop can be used for the SSG to add the inertial
response of SG. In this case the SSG is called Virtual Synchronous
Generator (VSG).

8
4) Control of power quality level (optional) by mitigation of
Harmonic

Sag

Unbalance
Upper Controller Lower Controller
Loop Loop
P* V* Switching
Outer Inner
Q* / V* Loop Loop
I* ≡ Signal

Scalar Vector Switching

techniques
9
 Switching techniques

Current control Voltage control

• Hysteresis current • Space vector modulation

control (HCC) (SVM)

• Ramp CC • Sinusoidal PWM (SPWM)

• Predictive CC • Selection harmonic

elimination (SHE)

10
 Scalar Control “Using Voltage Control”
Reactive Power control for Modulation
voltage Regulation. Signal Comparator
Q *DG M V *a S1
PI
- 𝓥*a = M sin(𝝎t+Φ)
Q DG V *b S4
For Synchronization 𝓥* b= M sin(𝝎t+Φ-120)
V PCC Θ 𝝓 𝓥*c = M sin(𝝎t+Φ+120) V *c
PLL ∑

P *DG 𝜹
PI S 1 , S 4 are the gate switches
-
Active Power
P DG controller M = modulation index
PLL = phase locked loop
PI = proportional plus integral controller
11
 𝑽𝒑𝒄𝒄 ∠Θ
S1 S3 S5
Va Vb Vc 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝜹 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆
Impedance 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆
S4 S6 S2

SSG V ∠𝝓
V
VPCC
𝑽 × 𝑽𝑷𝑪𝑪
𝑷= . 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜹
𝑿 𝜹 𝝓grid
Θ
Ref.
 P 𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝜹 𝒑 ↑⟹ 𝜹 ↑

𝑷 ↓⇒ 𝜹 ↓
12
ii) Vector Control
It is called “Voltage orientation
control”.
Clarke Transform: it is a 𝓥𝒑𝒄𝒄 = 𝓥𝜶 + 𝒋𝓥𝜷
transformation from Three-
b
phase (a ,b ,c) to stationary
frame (𝛼,𝛽),
a Stationary
𝓥𝜶 𝟏 − 𝟏ൗ𝟐 − 𝟏ൗ𝟐 𝑽𝒂
𝓥𝜷 = 𝑪
𝑽𝒃 frame
𝟎 𝟑ൗ − 𝟑ൗ𝟐 𝑽𝒄
𝟐
c 𝞗 = 𝝎s t
Arbitrary constant:
2/3 for power variant
2/3 for power invariant. Used form in this lecture.
13
 Transformation from Stationary q
frame (𝛼,𝛽) to Rotating frame
Rotating
(d,q):
𝝎s frame
𝓥𝒑𝒄𝒄 = 𝓥𝒅 + 𝒋 𝓥𝒒
𝓥𝒑𝒄𝒄
d
b
𝑽𝒅 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝑽𝜶
𝑽𝒒 = −𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝑽𝜷 𝞗
a Stationary
∴Transformation from dq → 𝑎,b,c 𝞗 = 𝝎s t frame
𝟏 𝟎 c
𝓥∗𝒂
𝟐 − 𝟏ൗ 𝟑ൗ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 −𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝓥𝒅
𝓥∗𝒃 = 𝟐 𝟐
𝟑 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝓥𝒒
𝓥𝒄∗ − 𝟏ൗ𝟐 − 𝟑ൗ𝟐

𝑷 = 𝓥𝒅 𝒊𝒅 + 𝓥𝒒 𝒊𝒒 𝑸 = 𝓥𝒅 𝒊𝒒 − 𝓥𝒒 𝒊𝒅
14
 𝑷𝑪𝑪 “Voltage orientation control”.
I𝑫𝑮 q - axis 𝝎s
𝑮𝒓𝒊𝒅
d-axis
𝑷𝑫𝑮 , 𝑸𝑫𝑮 Load
𝑷, 𝑸

𝞗
Inverter

3
By PCC voltage orientation on d- axis ➔ 𝒱𝑞 = 0 & 𝒱𝑑 = 𝑉 ➔
2 𝑃𝐶𝐶
𝟑 𝟑
P = V .id & Q = V .i
𝟐 pcc 𝟐 pcc q

Which means: 𝑖𝑑 (direct component) → control of P

𝑖𝑞 (quadrature component) → control of Q

Note: VPCC is the peak phase voltage at PCC.

15
Space phasor (vector) of three-phase quantities
Ex. 1
Three-phase currents are given by:
ia = im cos t, ib = im cos(t – 120), and ic = im cos(t + 120)
Find iα and iβ .
Sol.
 −1 −1   im cos  t 
2   
1
 i 
 = 2 2   i cos(  t − 120 )  = 3  im cos  t 
i     i sin  t 
  3 3 3  m 2 m 
0 −   im cos(  t + 120 ) 
 2 2 
iα = im cos t and iβ = im sin t

16
Space phasor (vector) of three-phase quantities
Ex. 2
For the given three-phase currents of Ex .1, find the DQ components in a
synchronous frame rotates at .

Sol.
 iD   cos  t sin  t  3  im cos  t  3  cos  t cos  t + sin  t sin  t 
  =   *   = im  
 i  − sin  t cos  t  2  i sin  t  −   +  
 Q   m  2  sin t cos t cos t sin t 

3  cos(  t −  t )  3  im 
= im   =  
2  0  2 0 

•In the synchronous rotating frame :

3
i d
= i m
& i q
=0
2
Note: id is the rms line value, where im is the peak phase value.

17
Vector Control of SSG inverter: Open Loop Control
•The vector control of the SSG inverter is used to control the active power and
reactive power flow from the DG to the grid as below:
•It is an open loop control. +ve P* or Q* for power feeding to grid & -ve P* or Q* for
absorbing power from the grid.
•This mode of control called “Grid following”.

P* id* 𝓲α * 𝓲 a*
1/Vg
Active Power controller 𝓲b*
dq / αβ αβ/abc
𝓲β* 𝓲c *
Q* iq*
1/Vg
Reactive Power controller Θ
Phase Locked
𝟑 LOOP (PLL)
𝑽𝒈 = 𝑽𝑷𝑪𝑪 = Line rms grid voltage
𝟐
vPCC a vPCC b vPCC c 18
Vector Control of SSG inverter: Closed Loop Control
•If voltage regulation is selected ➔ The SSG works as a PV node.
•If reactive power control loop is selected ➔ The SSG works as a PQ node.
✓ Q*= 0 ➔ SSG works at UPF
✓ Q*=Qload ➔ UPF @ PCC
id* 𝓲α * 𝓲 a*
P * PI
-
𝓲b*
Active power controller P
dq / αβ αβ/abc
iq* 𝓲β * 𝓲c *
Q*
-
Q
Reactive power controller Θ
Phase Locked
VPCC* LOOP (PLL)
-
VPCC
vPCC a vPCC b vPCC c
Voltage regulation loop
19
Hysteresis current control (HCC)

∆𝓲 On S1
𝓲 *
a -H S1
Va
- +H
Off S4 S4
𝓲a
Hysteresis Band
2H
∆𝒊 > 𝒉 ⇒ 𝑺𝟏 𝑶𝑵 ⇒ 𝑺𝟒 𝑶𝑭𝑭

∆𝒊 < −𝒉 ⇒ 𝑺𝟏 𝑶𝑭𝑭 ⇒ 𝑺𝟒 𝑶𝑵

20
 Why we need a PLL ?
•The grid voltage equation in stationary frame ( 𝛼𝛽 ) can be represented by :

𝓥a
V
abc / 𝒗𝜷 𝜣𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒅
−𝟏
𝜣𝒔 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏
𝓥b 𝒗𝜶
1 − 1Τ2 − 1Τ2
2/3
0 3ൗ
− 3ൗ2 V 𝑽𝒈 = 𝒗𝟐𝛂 + 𝒗𝟐 Vg
2
𝓥c

va ,vb ,vc are the three-phase grid voltages.

Vg = the Peak Phase Voltage. (Power Variant Form of abc/αβ transform)

However, Digital Filters are needed to avoid disturbances due to noisy

measurements. In turn, we need to compensate for the phase error introduced by
filters. 21
 Estimating the space phasor angle of grid voltage
• The block diagram below shows digital filters and the correction of the estimated
angle by adding the lag phase shift introduced by filters.
• 𝜣𝑓𝑖𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝜏𝜔 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 2𝜋𝑓𝜏 , f = supply frequency
➔ For τ=0.005 (cut-off frequency = 200Hz), and f =50Hz ➔ 𝜣filter=1.0039 rad.
• The magnitude attenuation introduced by filters, (𝐺 = 1ൗ 2) , does not affect
1+ 𝜏𝜔
the angle measurement as the two filtered signals are divided.
•Therefore, Vg is calculated from the unfiltered signals 𝑣α , 𝑣 to avoid attenuation. A
third filter can be used for Vg , if needed, as Vg is a DC signal (f=0)➔zero attenuation.

𝓥a
V 𝟏 𝜣𝒔
𝒗𝜷 𝜣𝒈𝒓𝒊𝒅
abc / 𝟏 + 𝝉𝑺 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏
𝒗𝜶
𝓥b + 𝜣𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓
1 − 1Τ2 − 1Τ2 Vg
2/3 3ൗ V 𝟐
0 2 − 3ൗ2 𝟏 𝑽𝒈 = 𝒗𝟐𝛂 + 𝒗
𝓥c 𝟏 + 𝝉𝑺
22
 PLL
•For grid-connected inverter, it is desirable that PLL response is without larger
overshoot and oscillations, therefore the PLL parameters are calculated from:

where ωbw is the band width

Frequency.

Reference: E. Adzic, V. Porobic, B. Dumnic, N. Celanovic, and V. Katic, "PLL SYNCHRONIZATION IN GRID-CONNECTED
CONVERTERS," The 6th PSU-UNS International Conference on Engineering and Technology (ICET), Novi Sad, Serbia, May 15-17,
23
2013, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences.
 PLL
Note: It is important to design PLL properly, considering real grid voltage
conditions and application:
•Slow dynamic of the PLL filter (set by KP and KI) gives filtered and relatively
stable estimated phase angle and frequency, but with longer synchronization time.
•On the other hand, PLL filter with fast dynamic filter gives a phase angle that
follows the rapid changes in voltage (necessary in grid failures conditions), but
the grid distortion would reflect in erroneous estimated phase angle.

fbw = 50Hz fbw = 3Hz

Grid voltage is distorted with 5th and 7th harmonics

Reference: E. Adzic, V. Porobic, B. Dumnic, N. Celanovic, and V. Katic, "PLL SYNCHRONIZATION IN GRID-CONNECTED
CONVERTERS," The 6th PSU-UNS International Conference on Engineering and Technology (ICET), Novi Sad, Serbia, May 15-17,
2013, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Technical Sciences. 24