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Research Project: Civil Rights and Redress, 1877-2000
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliations
Course Number and Title
Professor’s Name
Due Date
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Introduction
Between 1877 and 2000, minority groups in the United States sought redress for
historical injustices in different ways, depending on the nature of the harm they experienced and
the outcomes they wanted. Redress could mean a formal apology and compensation for a past
injustice, or it could mean legal protection to prevent discrimination in the future. This project
compares the Japanese American Redress Movement and the Disability Rights Movement to
show how different groups pursued justice and how their approaches shaped the results they
achieved.
Japanese American Redress Movement
During World War II, over 120,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly removed from
their homes and incarcerated by the U.S. government. This policy was based on racism, fear, and
political failure rather than military necessity1. For decades after the war, the injustice remained
largely unaddressed at the federal level.
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Japanese American activists began to organize around
the goal of redress. Their central demand was for the federal government to officially
acknowledge wrongdoing and provide reparations to survivors. To support this goal, activists
pushed for the creation of an official government investigation. In 1980, Congress established the
Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians2.
The commission gathered documents, historical evidence, and public testimony from
former incarcerees. Its 1982 report, Personal Justice Denied, concluded that incarceration was
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Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied (Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1982).
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Cathleen K. Kozen, “Redress as American-Style Justice,” Time & Society 21, no. 1 (2012): 105
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caused by racism and a failure of political leadership3. This official record became a powerful
tool for activists because it came from the federal government itself.
Japanese American organizations also focused on lobbying Congress and educating the
public. Advocacy groups used community meetings, public events, and printed materials to keep
attention on the issue. Posters created by groups such as the National Coalition for Redress and
Reparations helped mobilize support and pressure lawmakers4. These efforts framed redress as a
moral and constitutional responsibility of the U.S. government.
After years of advocacy, Congress passed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988. The law
included a formal apology from the federal government and monetary reparations for surviving
victims5. This outcome shows that Japanese American redress focused on repairing a specific
past injustice through official recognition and compensation.
Disability Rights Movement
Unlike Japanese American redress, the Disability Rights Movement focused on ongoing
discrimination rather than a single historical event. Throughout the twentieth century, people
with disabilities faced exclusion from public spaces, employment, education, and transportation.
These barriers were built into everyday life and reinforced by government policy6.
Disability rights activists organized around the idea that discrimination was not caused by
individual limitations, but by social and physical barriers. One of the movement’s early legal
foundations was the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, which included Section 504. This section
prohibited discrimination against people with disabilities in federally funded programs 7.
However, the government failed to enforce the law for several years.
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Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied, 18-20
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Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied, 18-20.
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National Coalition for Redress and Reparations, poster, ca. 1990s, Densho Digital Repository.
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United States, Civil Liberties Act of 1988, Pub. L. No. 100-383.
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Richard K. Scotch, “Politics and Policy in the History of the Disability Rights Movement,” The Milbank Quarterly 67,
no. S3 (1989): 382.
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In response, activists turned to direct action. In 1977, disability rights groups organized
sit-ins at federal buildings to demand enforcement of Section 504. These protests lasted weeks
and drew national attention. Protest materials, such as the “Sign 504 Now” poster, emphasized
urgency and demanded immediate action from the government8.
The Disability Rights Movement relied heavily on protest, coalition-building, and public
pressure. Activists worked with labor groups, civil rights organizations, and policymakers to
push for broader legal protections. Scholars note that enforcement, not just legislation, became a
central struggle for the movement9. These efforts eventually led to the passage of the Americans
with Disabilities Act of 1990. The ADA prohibited disability discrimination across employment,
public accommodations, transportation, and communication10. Rather than offering compensation
for past harm, the law aimed to create long-term equality and access.
Comparison and Contrast
The Japanese American Redress Movement and the Disability Rights Movement both
targeted the federal government, but their strategies and goals differed. Japanese American
activists focused on documenting a past injustice and persuading Congress to offer reparations
and an apology. Disability rights activists focused on changing systems and enforcing civil rights
protections to prevent future discrimination.
Japanese American redress relied heavily on official records, testimony, and legislative
lobbying. Disability rights activism relied more on protest, visibility, and enforcement pressure.
Both movements faced resistance and delay, but they succeeded because they matched their
strategies to their specific goals.
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U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, “Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Original Text).”
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Smithsonian Institution, “Sign 504 Now,” poster.
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Edward D. Berkowitz, “A Historical Preface to the Americans with Disabilities Act,” Journal of Policy History 6, no.
1 (1994): 98.
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Conclusion
Between 1877 and 2000, minority groups sought redress by pressuring the federal
government to recognize injustice and change policy. The Japanese American Redress
Movement achieved retrospective repair through apology and reparations, while the Disability
Rights Movement achieved prospective change through civil rights law and enforcement.
Together, these movements show that redress can take different forms, depending on whether the
goal is to repair the past or protect the future.
Bibliography
Berkowitz, Edward D. “A Historical Preface to the Americans with Disabilities Act.” Journal of
Policy History 6, special issue 1 (1994): 96-119.
[Link]
Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. Personal Justice Denied:
Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians.
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982.
Kozen, Cathleen K. “Redress as American-Style Justice: Congressional Narratives of Japanese
American Redress at the End of the Cold War.” Time & Society 21, no. 1 (2012): 104-
120. [Link]
National Coalition for Redress and Reparations. Poster informing the public about a program
regarding the redress bill. ca. 1990s. Densho Digital Repository.
[Link]
Scotch, Richard K. “Politics and Policy in the History of the Disability Rights Movement.” The
Milbank Quarterly 67, no. S3 (1989): 380-400.
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[Link]
[Link].
Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of American History. “Sign 504 Now.” Poster.
Accessed January 6, 2026.
[Link]
United States. Civil Liberties Act of 1988. Pub. L. No. 100-383, 102 Stat. 903 (August 10, 1988).
[Link]. “Text for S. 933 (101st Congress, 1989-1990): Americans with Disabilities Act of
1990.” Accessed January 6, 2026. [Link]
bill/933/text.
Hastings, Emiko. “‘No Longer a Silent Victim of History’: Repurposing the Documents of
Japanese American Internment.” Archival Science 11, no. 1 (2011): 25-46.
Schweik, Susan. “Lomax’s Matrix: Disability, Solidarity, and the Black Power of 504.”
Disability Studies Quarterly 31, no. 1 (2011). [Link]
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. “Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Original Text).”
Accessed January 6, 2026. [Link]
Yoshida, Helen. “Redress and Reparations for Japanese American Incarceration.” The National
WWII Museum, August 13, 2021. [Link]
reparations-japanese-american-incarceration