WWWE MODULE 1

Introduction
 Before designing a proper waterworks project it is necessary to identify the quantity of water that is required daily.
 The water requirement Is estimated considering provisions for future population and also considering the
requirements for various purposes like industrial or institutional
 A water supply project is designed to achieve the need of the region up to the designed period which can be extended
up to 2-4 decades
 There are several methods to forecast the population
 The final method is decided by the engineer who will be most suitable and applicable to that particular location
 After the calculation of water demand a reliable source of water is located.
RATE OF DEMAND
The water consumption in a city may be conveniently divided into the following categories:
 Domestic water demand
 Industrial water demand
 Institutional and commercial
 Demand for public use
 Fire demand
 Losses
The total quantity of water required divided by the total population gives per capita demand.

 Estimating water demand involves the determination of the following items:

 Population forecasting:
 The most important factor in planning is population forecasting
 Generally a design period of 20-40yr is taken
Design period:
 Future periods for which provision is made in designing the capacities or various components of the
water supply scheme is known as design period
 For designing various components of water supply project the design period given by the GOI manual
on water supply is as given below
component Design life Design discharge
Source 50 𝑄𝑀𝐷
Pipe I 30 𝑄𝑀𝐷
Pump canal 15 𝑄𝑀𝐷
WTP 15 𝑄𝑀𝐷
Service reservoir 15 volume
Pipe II 30 maximum of ( 𝑄𝑀𝐷 + 𝑄𝐹𝐷 ),
𝑄𝑀𝐻

Distribution system 30 maximum of ( 𝑄𝑀𝐷 + 𝑄𝐹𝐷 ),

𝑄𝑀𝐻
Population growth:
Three main factors are:
 Births (population gain)
 Deaths(population loss)
 Migrations(loss or gain depending on whether movement out or in)
Population forecasting is also done graphically.
GROWTH CURVE:
The curve having S shaped as shown below
is known as a logistic curve.
POPULATION FORECAST:
 The data about the present population of a city can always be obtained from record of the
municipality
 The population density indicating the number of persons per unit area and the distribution of
population should be studied for efficient design of the distribution system
Following are some of the important methods of population forecasts of population projections
i. Arithmetic increase method
ii. Geometric increase method
iii. Incremental increase method
iv. Graphical method
v. Geometric growth rate method
Arithmetic increase method
 This method is most simple and gives lower results
 Increase in population is assumed to be constant
The future population 𝑃𝑛 after n decades is given by
𝑃𝑛 = P +nx where P= present population
x= Avg. increment for a decade
 This method should be used for forecasting the population of those large and old cities which have
reached their saturation population.
Geometric increase method:
 In this method it is assumed that the percentage increase in population from decade to decade is
constant.
 From the population data of the previous 3 or 4 decades the percentage increase in population is found,
and its average is found.
𝑟 𝑛
𝑃𝑛 =P(1+ )
100
Where r= avg percentage increase per decade, 𝑃𝑛 = population after n decade
Incremental increase method:

 This method combines both the arithmetic average method and geometric average method.
 The actual increase in each decade is found.
 From these an average increment of the increase (incremental increase) is found.
 Thus the future population at the end of n decade is given by:
𝑛(𝑛+1)
𝑃𝑛 = P+ n𝑥ҧ + 𝑦ത
2
Decrease growth rate method:
 This method is applicable only when the rate of growth shows a downward trend
 Since the rate of increase in population goes on reducing as the cities reach saturation a method
which makes use of the decrease in the percentage in crease is many times used and gives quite
rational results.
 In this method the average decrease in the % worked out and is then subtracted from the latest %
increase for each successive decade
Example : The population of a locality as obtained from census records is as follows. Estimate
the population of the locality in 2040 by arithmetic increase, geometrical increase and the rate
of decrease method, incremental increase method.

Year 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010

population 15000 20000 24500 29500 32500
Assignment question:
1) The population for 4 decade from 1951 to 1981 are given in the table. Find out the population by the
end of 2011 by using the arithmetic increase method.
Year 1951 1961 1971 1981
population 1,00,000 1,09,000 1,16,000 1,28,000

2) The census record of a particular town shows the population figures as follows. Estimate the
population for the year 2020 by decreasing rate growth.

Year 1960 1970 1980 1990

Population 55500 63700 71300 79500
Factors affecting per capita water demand:

1) Size of the city: demand increase with the size of the city
2) Climate condition : if the community is located in a hot climate, water use will be increased.
3) Standard of living : the higher the standard of living is the higher the demand
4) Quality of water: poor quality of water results in a reduction in use
5) Pressure in the supply: high pressure results in increased use while low pressure results in
decreased use
6) System of supply: water supply may either be continuous or intermittent. Generally intermittent
supply will reduce the rate of demand.
7) Water rates: an increase in water rates will reduce consumption in the metered areas
Water demand:
Various types of water demand are:
1) Domestic water demand:
 This includes the water required in the private building for drinking, cooking, bathing, gardening etc.
 The total domestic water consumption usually accounts 50-60% of the total water consumption
 IS code recommended domestic water consumption limit between 135-225lpcd
2) Institutional and commercial water demand;

Sl no Institution demand
1 School/colleges 45-135 lpcd
2 Offices 45 lpcd
3 Restaurants 70 per seat
4 Cinema/theatre 15 lpcd
5 Hotels 180 l/bed
6 hospitals 340 l/bed (when bed<100)
450 l/bed (beds>100)
3) Industrial water demand: water demand of certain important industries (as per GOI manual) are
given below:

Name of industry Unit of production Quantity of water (in

kilolitre)
Automobiles Vehicles 40
Fertilizer Ton 80-200
Leather Ton (or 100 kg) 40 (or 4)
Paper Ton 200-400
Petroleum refinery Ton (crude) 1-2
sugar Ton (cane crushed) 1-2
4) Fire demand: for cities having population exceeding 50,000 the water required in kilo-litre may
be computed as follows:
fire demand= 100 𝑃 where P= population thousand
a) Kuchling formula: fire demand, Q= 3182 𝑷(l/min)
b) National board of fire under writer formula: Q= 4637 𝑷 (1-0.1 𝑷 ) [l/min] (when P<2 lakh)
When P> 2lakh, a provision for 54600 l/min may be made with an extra additional provision of 9100-
36400 l/min for a second fire.
𝑷
c) Freeman formula: Q= 1136 [ + 𝟏𝟎]
𝟏𝟎
d) Buston’s formula: Q= 5663 𝑷
Water demand for losses and theft: This includes the water lost in leakage due to bad plumbing,
Stolen water due to unauthorized water connection and other losses and wastes.
This amount may be as high as 15% of the total.

Fluctuation of water demand:

Maximum daily demand=1.8 annual average daily demand
Maximum hourly demand on max day= 1.5*avg hourly demand of max day
max 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
= 1.5*
24
=2.7 𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑛𝑎𝑑
Note: raw water scheme designed for max hourly design
Coincident demand= maximum of ( 𝑄𝑀𝐷 + 𝑄𝐹𝐷 ), 𝑄𝑀𝐻
SOURCES OF WATER
GROUND WATER SOURCES:
INFILTRATION GALLERY:
 Infiltration galleries are horizontal tunnels constructed at shallow depths (3-5m) along the banks of
rivers through the water bearing strata.
 An infiltration gallery is generally constructed of masonry wall with a roof slab and extracts water
from the aquifer by various porous lateral drain pipes located at suitable intervals along the length of
the gallery.
 These pipes are generally covered with gravel to prevent the entry of fine sand particles into the pipes.
 These galleries are generally laid at a slope and the water collected in them is taken to a sump well
from where it is pumped, treated and distributed to the consumers
 The infiltration galleries have a width of about 1m depth of 2m and length varying from 10m as long as
100m depending on the extent of the water field.
 They are seldom deeper than 6m below the ground level. The shaft of gallery of sufficient length is fed
at intervals by lateral pipes as stated above.
𝑲𝑳 (𝑯𝟐 −𝒉𝟎 𝟐 )
Q= where, H= height of water in river
𝟐𝑹
𝐻0 =height of water in gallery, R= radius of influence
 INFILTRATION WELLS:

 Infiltration wells are the shallow wells constructed in series along the banks of the river to collect the
river water seeping through their bottoms.
 The various infiltration wells are constructed by porous pipes to sump well called jack well.
 The water reaching the jack well from different infiltration well is lifted, treated and distributed to the
consumers.
SPRINGS:
 The natural outflow of groundwater at the earth’s surface is said to form a spring.
 A spring indicates the outcropping (a rock formation a place on the earth where bedrock underneath
shows through) of water table.
 The springs are generally capable of supplying a very small amount of water and therefore are not
regarded as sources of water supply.
Different forms of springs are:
1. Artesian spring
2. Gravity spring
3. Surface spring
WELL:
A water well is a hole usually vertical, excavated in the earth for bringing the ground water to the surface.

Well

Open tube

shallow deep cavity screen

strainer gravel
Open well :
 Open wells are generally open masonry wells having large diameters as compared to other wells
𝑚3
 Suitable for low discharge of 18
ℎ𝑟
 Diameter: 2-9m , depth less than 20m
 Thickness: 0.5-0.75m
Depending upon the availability of such provision the open wells may be classified into the following 2
types:
a) Shallow open wells
b) Deep open wells
 Shallow and deep well:

Shallow well Deep well

 This type of well takes out water from  This type of well carries water from
upper water carrying strata lower water carrying strata
 Quality is poor than deep well  Quality is comparatively better
 Quantity is less. (less discharge)  Quantity is more (more discharge)
 If discharge is more than critical velocity  Here well is supported by impermeable
then particles (sand) comes out and layer. Though a cavity is formed below.
settlement of well occurs
Yield of an open well:
 The yield of an open well can be determined with the help of a theoretical method or with the
practical method or by carrying out practical tests and then calculating it from the observation.
 The third method is useful for calculating the yield of open well as well as tube wells penetrating
through the confined aquifers
a) Pumping method: (field test):
Let 𝑉𝑜 water is taken out at time 𝑡𝑜 and fall in water is 𝑆𝑜
𝑸𝟎
Then discharge Q=( ) AS
𝑨𝑺𝒐
(where S is the draw down)
b) Recuperating test:
 As the pumping test also gives the accurate value of safe yield, it sometimes becomes very difficult
to adjust the rate of pumping so as to keep the well water level constant
 In such circumstances recuperating test is adopted.
 In this method, the water is first all drained from the well at a fast rate to cause sufficient drawdown
 Pumping is then stopped. The water level in the well will start rising. The time taken by the water to
come back to its normal level or some other measured level is then noted.
The discharge can then be worked out as below:
Let AB= static water level in the well before pumping was started
CD= water level in the well when pumping was stopped
𝒔𝟏 =depression head in the well at the time the pumping was stopped
EF= water level in the well at the noted time
𝒔𝟐 =depression head in the well at time T after the pumping is stopped
Hence, in a time t after the pumping is stopped the water level recuperates by (𝑠1 −𝑠2 ). It again
recuperates by ds in a time dt after this.
Q is the rate of recharge into the well under depression head s , then

Q=C’s
𝐶′
Q= ( )𝐴 𝑠
𝐴
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝒔
Q=( 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝟏 ) A s
𝑻 𝒔𝟐
𝐶′
In the absence of a recuperation test the following rough values of as given by marriot, can be used.
𝐴
Type of soil 𝐶′
(specific capacity/ specific yield) in
𝐴
𝑚3
( )/𝑚2 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
ℎ𝑟
Clay 0.25
Fine sand 0.50
Coarse sand 1
 Tube well:
Strainer type well:
 A bearing tube well uses assembled strainer lengths over a perforated pipe which are lowered into
the bone hole located opposite the water bearing.
 A strainer consists of a perforated pipe with a wire mesh wrapped around the pipe with a small
annular space between the two
 The wire screen prevents the sand particles from entering the well. The water therefore enters the
well pipe through the fine mesh, and the sand particles of size larger than the size of the mesh are
prevented from entering the well.
 This reduces the danger of sand removal and hence larger flow velocities can be permitted
 The perforated pipe is made to have the cross sectional area of its openings equal to that in the wire
mesh so that no change of velocity occurs between the two
 The annular space between the pipe and the wire mesh is required, as otherwise the wires of the
mesh will cover a large part of the area of the pipe openings.
 A strainer type tube well is generally unsuitable for fine sandy strata.
 Gravel pack type:
 A slotted pipe is lowered into the bore hole and the external gap between the borehole and slotted
pipe is fitted up with graded gravel
 It uses a slotted pipe without being covered by any wire mesh.
 Slotted pipe length are located opposite the water bearing formations, as is done with the strainers in
a strainer tube well.
 These slotted pipes should strictly be referred to as screen pipes although they are often called
slotted pipe strainers or pipe strainers leaving little scope to differentiate between such slotted pipes
and the perforated pipes with mesh coverings.
 After placing the assembly of the plain and slotted pipes in the borehole a mixture of gravel and
bajri is poured into the borehole between the well pipe assembly and the casing pipe so as to
surround the well pipes by a designed 10-20mm thickness of gravel pack
 The gravel packing is specifically required around the screen pipes but since the material is poured
from ground level into the borehole the pack shall be installed in the entire depth of the well below
the top level of the shallowest screen
 Generally provided in fine aquifers where effective grain size (D10) may be less than 0.25mm and
the uniformity coefficient (𝐶𝑢 ) may be 2 or less.
Cavity type well:
 A cavity type tube well draws water from the bottom of the well and not from the sides as is done by a
screen well
 No strainer is provided in this well
 The flow in a cavity well therefore is essential spherical and not radial like that of a screen well
 The working principle of a cavity type tube well is similar to that of a deep open well, the only
difference is that a cavity tube well may even tap the water from the lower or still lower stratum
 It consists of a pipe bored through the soil and resting on the bottom of a strong clay layer.
 A cavity is formed at the bottom and the water from the aquifer enters the well pipe through this
cavity.
 In the initial stage of pumping fine sand comes out with water and consequently a hollow or a cavity
is formed.
 As the spherical area of the cavity increases outward the radial critical velocity decreases for the same
discharge thus reducing the flow velocity and consequently stopping the entry of sand.
 Cavity tube wells can be used only for small supplies particularly for domestic water supplies.
Comparison between different type of tube well:
Cavity type Strainer type Gravel pack

 Pipe is only perforated at the  Pipe has perforation in the  Pipe has perforation in the
bottom curve surface side
 Water can enters only through  Water can enter only from  Water can enter only from
bottom curved surface curved surface
 As discharge required is more  Particle cannot enter as  Particle cannot enter as gravel
particles enters forming a strainer is provided on the side pack is provided
cavity at bottom  Discharge is more than cavity  Discharge is more than cavity
 Discharge is less than strainer type type
type
 Yield of tube well:
Dupit’s theory:
Assumption :
 The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic, and infinite and permeability is constant.
 The well receives water from the entire thickness of the aquifer.
 Flow is radial and horizontal.
 Flow is laminar.
 The inclination of the water surface is small.

Case I: tube well in unconfined aquifer:

𝜫𝑲(𝑯𝟐 −𝒉𝟎 𝟐 )
Discharge Q= 𝑹
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( )
𝒓𝒘
Where, R= radius of influence, 𝒓𝒘 = radius of tube well
Drawback:
 Q is dependent on such parameter whose value is not known to us i.e R
 Thus we cannot find exact value of R
 Hence we assume R=150-300m
This drawback of dupit theory is then over comed by theim’s theory
Theim’s theory:
𝜫𝑲(𝒉𝟐𝟏 −𝒉𝟎 𝟐 )
Discharge Q= 𝒓
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( 𝟏 )
𝒓𝒘
𝜫𝑲(𝒉𝟐𝟐 −𝒉𝟎 𝟐 )
Q= (
𝒓𝟐 same section can be extended from 𝒓𝒘 𝐭𝐨 𝒓𝟐 )
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( )
𝒓𝒘
𝜫𝑲(𝒉𝟐𝟐 −𝒉𝟏 𝟐 )
Q= 𝒓 (same section can be extended from 𝒓𝟐 to 𝒓𝟏 )
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( 𝟐 )
𝒓𝟏
Case II: tube well in confined aquifer:

Dupits theory:
Dupits theory was proposed for unconfined aquifer but we extend it for confined aquifer
𝟐𝜫𝑲𝑫(𝑯−𝒉𝟎 )
Q= 𝑹 (𝑻 = 𝑲𝑫)
𝟐.𝟑𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( )
𝒓𝒘
Theim’s theory:
𝟐𝜫𝑲𝑫(𝒉𝟏 −𝒉𝟎 )
Q= 𝒓
𝟐.𝟑𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( 𝟏 )
𝒓𝒘
𝟐𝜫𝑲𝑫(𝒉𝟐 −𝒉𝟏 )
Q= 𝒓
𝟐.𝟑𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( 𝟐 )
𝒓𝟏
𝟐𝜫𝑲𝑫(𝒉𝟐 −𝒉𝟎 )
Q= 𝒓
𝟐.𝟑𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( 𝟐 )
𝒓𝒘
1. During a recuperation test water is pumped up to 3m and it recuperated by 1.1m in 90min. Find
the size of well to yield 10 l/s under depression head of 2.5m

2. Water is pumped from a fine sand aquifer region at rate of 12 l/s . Find the size of well to give
𝐶′ 𝑚3
the required yield at the drawdown of 2m (take = 0.06 2 )
𝑆 𝑚 ℎ𝑟 𝑚
3. What is the strainer length required for a deep tube well giving a discharge of 8 l/sec ? Assume
permissible entrance velocity of 2 cm/s. it is desired to have the strainer of slot sizes
20mm*0.2mm with the no. of slots per cm length of the strainer as 100.
4. A 60cm diameter well is being pumped at a rate of 1360 l/min measurement in a nearby test well
were made at the same time as follows at a distance of 6m from the well being pumped the
drawdown was 6m and at 15m , the drawdown was 1.5m. The bottom of the well is 90m below
the GWT.
a) Find out the coefficient of permeability.
b) If all the observed points were on the dupits curve what was the drawdown in the well during
pumping.
 Assignment question:
1. water is being pumped from soil medium having an area of 200ha due to which GWT falls from
20m below the ground surface to 27m below the ground surface. Compute the change in ground
water storage due to pumping. η=0.4 ,γ𝑅 = 0.15
2. A well of diameter 20cm fully penetrates a confined aquifer. After a long period of pumping at a
rate of 2720litres per minute, the observations of drawdown taken at 10m and 100m distance from
the centre of the well are found to be 3m and 0.5m respectively. Find the transmissivity of the
aquifer.
3. A tracer takes 100days to travel from well 1 to well 2 which are100m apart. The elevation of
water surface in well 2 is 3m below that in well 1. assuming porosity be 15%, what will be the
coefficient of permeability in m/day?
4. Water table of an aquifer drops by 100cm over an area of 1000 𝑘𝑚2 . The porosity and specific
retention of the aquifer material are 25% and 5% respectively. Find the amount of water drained
out from the area in 𝑘𝑚3 .
Zones of ground water:
1) Zone of rock fracture
a) Zone of aeration
b) Zone of saturation
2) Zone of rock flowage
1) Zone of rock fracture:
 In this zone the stresses on particles are within the elastic limit and voids are present. The water is stored in these
voids and the amount of water stored depends upon porosity.
 This zone lies up to a depth of 100m-1000m below the earths surface.
 This zone is further divided into two zones
a) Zone of saturation:
 zone of saturation lies below the water table
 In this zone of saturation water exists within the interstics or pores and is known as ground water.
 This is the most important zone for a groundwater hydraulic engineer because he has to tap out this water. Water in
this zone is under hydrostatic pressure
 The upper level of the zone of saturation is called the water table
b) Zone of aeration:

 The space above the water table and below the surface of the earth is known as the zone of aeration
 In this zone water exists by molecular attraction.
 The gravity water moves through this zone
 The water in this zone is not at hydrostatic pressure
 The thickness of this zone varies from almost zero in marshy and low lying areas to about 300m or
so in arid regions.
2) Zone of rock flowage:
 In this zone the medium undergoes permanent deformation
 The stress are plastic stresses
 Water is present in the structure of medium particles and is known as internal water
 The zone is not of any use to hydraulic engineers.
Types of geological formation:
Aquifer: it is stratum consisting of permeable material that just not only stores water but also yields a
sufficient amount of water.
Eg: sand
It is classified into 3 types
a) UnConfined aquifer: the top most water bearing strata having no confined impermeable
overburden
b) Confined aquifer: these types of aquifers are formed when previous strata are between two
impermeable layers. Water in this aquifer is under pressure greater than hydrostatic pressure.
c) Perched aquifer: it is a special case within the unconfined aquifer. This type of aquifer is formed
when a localized patch of impervious strata exists inside an unconfined aquifer such that it retains
water above the ground water table.
Aquiclude: highly porous but impervious so it cannot yield water
Eg: clay layer
Aquitard: porous but less permeable so water cannot yielded but water can seep through it.
Eg: sandy clay
Aquifuge: nor porous nor permeable
eg: granite rock
 INTAKES FOR COLLECTING SURFACE WATER:
Whenever the water is withdrawn from surface sources such as a lake or a river and the entrance of the
conduit is not an integral part of a dam or any other related structures then an intake structure must be
constructed at the entrance of the conduit.
TYPES OF INTAKE:
Submerged intake:
 It is one that is constructed entirely under water
 It is commonly used to obtain supplies from a lake
 An exposed intake is in the form of a well or tower constructed near the bank of the river or in some
cases even away from the river banks.
 Exposed intakes are more common due to ease in their operation
 A wet intake is that type of intake tower in which the water level is practically the same as the water
level of the sources of supply. Such an intake is sometimes known as jack well and is most commonly
used.
 In the case of dry intake however there is no water in the water tower.
 Water enters through the entry port directly into the conveying pipes. The dry tower is simply used for
the operation of valves etc.
Exposed intake structure:
It is in the form of a well or tower constructed near the bank of a river or in some cases even away
from the river banks.
Exposed intakes are more common due to ease in operation.

Exposed intake
Submerged intake
 Wet intake tower:
 It is a type of intake tower in which
the water level is practically the
same as the level of the sources of
supply.
 It is some times known as jack well
and most commonly used.
Dry intake tower:
 In case of dry intake there is no
water in the water tower.
 Water enters through entry port
directly into the conveying pipes Dry intake tower
 It is simply used for the operation of
valves etc.
Depending upon the water tapping sources they are classified as river intake or reservoir intake.
River intakes are classified into four types:

i. Intake well
ii. Pipe intake
iii. Canal intake
iv. Lake intake
Reservoir intake:
 When the flow in the river is not guaranteed throughout the year a dam is constructed across it to
store water in the reservoir so formed.
 The reservoir intakes are practically similar to the river intake except that these are located near the
up stream face of the dam, where the maximum depth of water is available.
 Their design depends upon the type of dam . The intake is constructed near the toe of the dam.
Access to the intake tower is provided through a footbridge
 Water may enter the well through several entry ports located at various elevations so that relatively clear top
water is admitted at all seasons.
 The water level in the well is practically the same as the reservoir level.
 The valves of the entry ports are operated from gatehouse located at the top of the well
 From the well water is led down stream through a suitably designed conduit which passes through
the body of the earth dam
Lake intake:
 Lake intake are similar to reservoir intake if the depth of water near the banks is reasonable
 If however the depth of the water near the banks is shallow, and greater depth is available only at
its center a submerged intake is provided.
 Submerged intakes are constructed as bell mouths
Canal intake:
 The sources of water supply to a small town may be an irrigation canal passing near the town
 It consists of a concrete/masonry intake chamber of rectangular shape, admitting water through a
coarse screen. A fine screen is provided over the bell mouth entry of the outlet pipe.
 The bell mouth entry is located below the expected low water level in the canal
water may flow from the outlet pipe under gravity if the filter house is situated at a lower elevation

 Otherwise the outlet pipe may serve as a suction pipe, and the pump house may be located on or
near the canal bank
 The intake chamber is so constructed that it does not offer any appreciable resistance to normal
flow in the canal. Otherwise the intake chamber is located inside the canal bank.
River intake:
 A river intake is located upstream of the city so that pollution is minimised
 They are either located sufficiently inside the river so that demands of water are met in all the
seasons of the year or they may be located near the river bank where a sufficient depth of water is
available
 Sometimes an approach channel is constructed and water is led to the intake tower.
Specific yield:
the amount of groundwater extracted by gravity from a saturated water bearing material is called yield and when
it is expressed in terms of the ratio of the total volume of medium drained then it is known as specific yield.

𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑆𝑦 = ∗ 100
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑎
Specific retention:
It is the ratio of the volume of water retained against gravity to the total amount of medium drained
𝑆𝑦 +𝑆𝑟 =η (η= porosity)
Example:
Water table of an aquifer drops by 100cm over an area of 1000k𝑚2 . The porosity and specific
retention of the aquifer material are 25% and 5%. What is the amount of water drained out from the
area?
Sol:
𝑆𝑦 +𝑆𝑟 =η
5 𝑉𝑊
+ =25/100
100 1000∗106 ∗1
𝑉𝑊 =0.2*109 = 0.2𝑘𝑚3
Assignment question:

1. A 0.5m diameter well fully penetrates an unconfined aquifer whose bottom is 150m below the
undisturbed ground water table. The water is pumped out from the well at a constant rate of
0.1𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐after the equilibrium reached the drawdown observed in two observation wells at
radial distances of 10m and 50m is respectively, 10m and 5m. Determine coefficient of
permeability and the drawdown in the well.
2. An aquifer of 25m average thickness is overlain by an impervious layer of 30m thickness. A test
well 0.4m in diameter and two observation wells at a distance of 12m and 48m are located in the
aquifer. After pumping at a rate of 0.2 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐 for a long time , drawdown in the wells were
observed to be 3.5m and 1.5m respectively. Determine the coefficient of permeability in m/day
3. A well of diameter 20m fully penetrates a confined aquifer. After a long period of pumping at a
rate of 2720 l/min the observation of drawdown taken at 10m and 100m distances from the
centre of the well is found to be 3m and 0.5m. Find the transmissibility of the aquifer
 PUMPING
The mechanical device or arrangement by which the water is caused to flow at increased pressure is
known as a pump and the process of using a pump is known as pumping.
Following are the purposes for which pumping is adopted in water supply schemes
 To increase pressure at certain points in the distribution system
 To lift clear water after treatment to an elevated storage reservoir
 To lift raw water from lake, reservoir or river for carrying it to a treatment plant
 To lift water available from wells to an elevated storage tanks in stages.
 To throw water directly into distribution system
Choice of type of pumps:
Following considerations govern the choice of a particular type of pump in water supply system:
 Capacity of pump
 Initial cost
 Location of pump
 Maintenance cost
 Number of units required
 Quality of water to be pumped
 Total head of water
 Type of power available
 TYPES OF PUMP:
According to the mechanical principle involved in the working of pumps, following are the different
type of pumps:
1) Air lift pump: this type of pump are generally adopted for pumping water from deep wells and
they can be conveniently used for lifts about 60m or so.
2) Centrifugal pump: this type of pump is widely used in water supply schemes. It is also available
commercially in any desired capacity
3) Displacement pump: in this type of pump a vacuum is created in a chamber by some mechanical
means and then water is drawn in this chamber. The volume of water thus drawn in the chamber is
then shifted or displaced mechanically out of chamber. The displacement pumps are of 2types:
i. Reciprocating pump (this type of pump is generally not recommended for city water supply
schemes. It may however be installed at places where its initial high cost can be justified. This
type of pump will be quite suitable for greater discharge under high head of water)
ii. Rotary pump (this type of pump is useful for moderate heads and small discharges. It may
conveniently be adopted for discharge not greater than 40 l/sec.)
 Miscellaneous pumps:
i) Hydraulic ram: the ram can be used for small water supply projects. It is installed at a lower
level than the stream or river and thus natural fall is developed. The ram can be used to lift water
for a height of about 30m or so.
ii) Jet pump: the jet pump may be used for pumping water from deep wells with a capacity of about
50 l/sec
 Design of pumps:
To workout the capacity required by the pump to deliver the specific head of water is known as design of
pumps. While designing a pump following two steps are kept in mind:
1) Find out the total head or total lift against which the pump has to work.
H=h+𝒉𝒇
Where, h= total static head or difference in level between the lowest water level in the well and full supply
level of the tank
ℎ𝑓 =head loss due to friction
(note: in working out the total head, the loss of head due to friction only is considered as other head losses
are minor, very small and negligible , hence H=ℎ𝑓 )
According to modified Darcy weibach formula,
𝟒𝒇𝒍𝒗𝟐 𝒇′ 𝒍𝒗𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = = (where, 𝑓 ′ =4f)
𝟐𝒈𝒅 𝟐𝒈𝒅
v = velocity of flow in m/sec l=length of pipe in m
f=coefficient of friction d=diameter of pipe in m , g= acceleration due to gravity
𝑓 ′ =friction factor (0.02-0.075)
 𝟒𝒇𝒍𝒗𝟐 𝒇′ 𝒍𝑸𝟐
𝒉𝒇 = 𝟐𝒈𝒅 = 𝟏𝟐.𝟏𝒅𝟓

𝟏
For new pipes: 𝒇′ = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝟏 +
𝟑𝟓𝒅
𝟏
For old pipes: 𝒇′ = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 𝟏 +
𝟑𝟓𝒅

2) Secondly work out the horse power (HP) required for the pump by calculating the work done by a pump to
raise the up to a height H.
W= weight of water in kg
Work done by the pump=W*H=γQH kg-m/sec
γ=unit weight of water
γQH
Water horse power= (as 1 metric HP=75kg-m/sec)
𝟕𝟓
𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 γQH
Brake horse power= =
𝜼 𝟕𝟓𝜼
η= combined efficiency of pump and motor
1) A city has population of 60000. it is to be supplied with water at 250litres per head per day. Calculate
the BHP of motor to raise the water to an overhead tank of 60m high. The length and diameter of the
rising main are 300m and 30cm respectively. The efficiency of motor is 95% and that of pump is 60%.
Assume 𝒇′ as 0.04 and peak hour demand as 1.5 times the average demand
Solution :
average water demand (Q)= 60000*250=15000000 lit/d
𝑚3 𝑚3
=15000 = 0.1736
𝑑 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑚3
Peak hour demand= 1.5*0.1736= 0.26
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓 ′ 𝑙𝑄2 0.04∗300∗0.262
ℎ𝑓 = = = 27.82m
12.1𝑑 5 12.1∗0.305
H=h+ ℎ𝑓 = 60+27.82=87.82m
η=0.95*0.60=0.57
γQH 1000∗0.26∗87.82
Break horse power (BHP)= = = 534 𝐻𝑃
75𝜂 75∗0.57
Assignment question :
1) Design a pumping station to raise water from an intake well to a sedimentation tank with the
following data:
Water to be raised per day 18000𝒎𝟑 ,Length of suction pipe 40m, length of rising main 150m,
friction factor 0.04, dia- 50cm , shift of working of pumps 2 duration of each shift 8hr, combined
efficiency 80%, static head as 21m.
Solution:
Water requirement per day=18000 𝑚3
Total pumping hr=2*8=16
Required pumping capacity per hr=18000/16=1125 𝑚3
1125 𝑚3
Q= = 0.31 , h=21m
60∗60 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑓 ′ 𝑙𝑄2 0.04∗(40+150)∗0.312
ℎ𝑓 = = = 1.95m
12.1𝑑 5 12.1∗0.505
γQH 1000∗0.31∗(21+1.95)
Break horse power (BHP)= = = 118.60 𝐻𝑃
75𝜂 75∗0.80
2) The water is to be raised from a tube well to an overhead storage tank. Work out the BHP of
the electro motor pumping set from the following data:
discharge :30 l/sec, length of rising main- 200m, coefficient of friction 0.072, RL of GL=200
RL of water level= 192, RL of water level in overhead tank=215 , depression head= 5m,
combined efficiency 75%, velocity of rising main=180cm/sec
Solution:
Π𝑑 2
Q= ∗𝑉
4
d = 0.1456m=0.15m
h= (200-192)+(215-200)+ depression head=8+15+5=28m
𝑓 ′ 𝑙𝑄2 0.072∗200∗0.032
ℎ𝑓 = = = 14.22m
12.1𝑑 5 12.1∗0.155
H=14.22+28=42.22m
γQH 1000∗0.03∗42.22
Break horse power (BHP)= = =22.52 HP
75𝜂 75∗0.75