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The study investigates the catastrophic Plinian eruption of Popocatépetl, known as the 'Lorenzo pumice' eruption, which occurred around 40 cal BCE and significantly impacted pre-Hispanic settlements in central Mexico. It details the eruption's characteristics, including its magnitude, volume, and the resulting lava flow field, while providing new radiocarbon dating and paleomagnetic data. The findings suggest that the eruption led to population displacement, contributing to the rise of major cities like Teotihuacan and Cholula.

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

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Radiocarbon dating, magnitude, and catastrophic impact of Popocatépetl’s

Terminal Preclassic “Lorenzo pumice” Plinian eruption and paleomagnetic
age constraints on the Nealtican lava flow field (central Mexico)
Claus Siebe a, *, Israel Ramírez-Uribe a, José Luis Macías a, Harald Böhnel b
a
Departamento de Vulcanología, Instituto de Geofísica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Coyoacán, C.P. 04510 Ciudad de México, Mexico
b
Centro de Geociencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Blvd. Juriquilla No. 3001, C.P. 76230 Querétaro, Mexico

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The “Lorenzo pumice” (LP) fallout was produced by a Plinian (VEI = 4) eruption of Popocatépetl volcano ~40
Popocatépetl cal BCE during the Terminal Preclassic period. It is part of a pyroclastic sequence that consists in stratigraphic
Plinian eruption order of fall, pyroclastic density current, and lahar deposits, which in turn are partly covered by the 70 km2
Pumice
andesitic-dacitic “Pedregal de Nealtican” lava flow field on the eastern slope of the volcano.
Lava flow
Lahar
The composition of the pumice varies insignificantly (SiO2 = 61.0 to 63.5 wt%) with phenocrysts of euhedral
Radiocarbon plagioclase > orthopyroxene > clinopyroxene ± olivine ± hornblende ± opaques.
Paleomagnetic dating Sizes of lithics and the isopach map indicate an eruption column height of ~28 km and a dispersal axis toward
Volcanic explosivity index the ENE, where an area of ~600 km2 that included pre-Hispanic dispersed villages was buried under >10 cm of
Holocene pumice. The minimum volume for the LP fallout was calculated at ~0.6 km3 corresponding to ~0.2 km3 of dense
Preclassic rock equivalent (DRE).
Archaeology The short Plinian phase ended when the column collapsed abruptly, generating lethal pyroclastic density
currents that were emplaced around the volcano. It was followed by periodic flooding by rain lahars that
originated from the slopes of Popocatépetl and from neighboring Iztaccíhuatl, severely affecting ravines and
large portions of the plains of Puebla in the east.
After the cataclysmic phase, the El Ombligo vent alignment opened at ~4000 m a.s.l. on Popocatépetl’s NE
upper slope from which the lavas that form the Nealtican lava flow field emanated, an effusive activity that lasted
>30 years. Paleomagnetic data for these lavas and stratigraphic evidence indicate that the lava flows with a total
volume of 4.2 km3 were emplaced shortly after the explosive Plinian phase and represent the degassed portion of
the LP magma.
This eruption had a considerable impact on pre-Hispanic settlements around the volcano, whose population
exodus and relocation probably contributed to the rise of important cities in central Mexico, such as Teotihuacán,
Cholula, and Cantona.

1. Introduction After decades of repose with only limited fumarolic activity, Popo
catépetl became reactivated in December 1994 threatening nearby
Popocatépetl stratovolcano reaches 5452 m above sea level (a.s.l.) populations (De la Cruz-Reyna and Siebe, 1997). The new activity has
and is located in the central part of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt consisted mainly of pulsating emissions of ash and intense fumarolic
(TMVB), a magmatic arc related to the subduction of the oceanic Cocos degassing (Love et al., 1998; Goff et al., 1998; Taquet et al., 2019)
and Rivera plates underneath the continental North America Plate associated to subsequent episodes of rapid dome growth and vulcanian-
(Schaaf et al., 2005). There, it is the youngest and southernmost volcano type explosions at the summit crater (Sheridan et al., 2001; Macías and
of the Sierra Nevada, a north-south trending andesitic-dacitic range Siebe, 2005; Stremme et al., 2011; Gómez-Vázquez et al., 2016; Men
(Macías et al., 2012; Sunyé-Puchol et al., 2022) that separates the basin doza-Rosas et al., 2017; Macías et al., 2022). This still ongoing eruptive
of Mexico City in the west from the valley of Puebla in the east (Fig. 1). period has prompted numerous geologic studies of the volcano revealing

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: csiebe@[Link] (C. Siebe).

[Link]
Received 21 May 2023; Received in revised form 28 November 2023; Accepted 30 November 2023
Available online 7 December 2023
0377-0273/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

that Popocatépetl should be regarded as one of Mexico’s potentially present new detailed stratigraphic and compositional data for the
most dangerous volcanoes due to the high-magnitude explosive erup pumice fallout, and twenty hitherto unpublished radiocarbon dates that
tions that are documented in its stratigraphic record (e.g., Siebe et al., further constrain the age of this important eruption that directly
1996; Larocque et al., 1998; Siebe and Macías, 2006). Many of these impacted settlements at the eastern lower slope of the volcano.
studies have been used for the preparation of volcano hazard maps Furthermore, we provide improved isopach and isopleth maps for the LP
(Macías et al., 1995; Martin del Pozzo et al., 2017). Plinian fallout deposit from which we derive more precise volume,
During the Holocene, three Plinian eruptions occurred well within eruption column height, and magnitude estimates. We also present new
the time of human occupation (Siebe et al., 1996) and especially the last paleomagnetic dating results for the extensive Nealtican lava flow field
two of them impacted settlements as attested by numerous occasional (Ramírez-Uribe et al., 2022) locally known as “Pedregal de Nealtican”
artifact findings under the deposits (Seele, 1973a; Seele and Siebe, 2012) (pedregal = rocky area in Spanish) that directly overlies the LP Plinian
and systematic archaeological excavations (e.g., Plunket and Uruñuela, deposits on the eastern lower flank of the edifice (Fig. 2). We discuss our
1998; Uruñuela and Plunket, 2003). The present Mexico City (65 km NW findings in the context of the relevance of this eruption for the human
of the volcano, ~25 million inhabitants) and the city of Puebla (40 km to settlement history and the rise of important cities such as Cholula and
the E, ~7 million inhabitants) along with other cities and towns lie Teotihuacan in central Mexico. Finally, our results also allow comparing
within the area of fallout from Plinian eruptions (Bonasia et al., 2014). the LP eruption with other Plinian eruptions of Popocatépetl and nearby
Although the reconstruction of several of Popocatépetl’s Plinian volcanoes, and to better assess future volcanic hazards and risks in this
eruptions from detailed stratigraphic studies, including the determina densely populated area.
tion of their eruption column heights, erupted volumes, compositions,
and radiocarbon ages was undertaken in recent years (Arana et al., 2. Methods and data sets
2010; Sosa-Ceballos et al., 2012; Siebe et al., 2017), our knowledge of
these parameters for the approximately two-thousand-years old “Lor The principal parameters characterizing the LP Plinian phase were
enzo Pumice” (LP) Plinian eruption remains vague. In this study we determined from data gathered directly from the deposits (fieldwork

Fig. 1. Index maps. A. Satellite image (Microsoft® Bing Maps, 2019) of the Sierra Nevada (SN, outlined in blue) showing the location of the Popocatépetl volcano
study area, adjacent basins, and major cities. NE = Nealtican lava-flow field. White (polygenetic) and red (monogenetic) triangles indicate other important volcanoes.
Other volcanic landforms are ChVF = Chichinautzin Volcanic Field, SdG = Sierra de Guadalupe, SdC = Sierra de las Cruces, and SSC = Sierra de Santa Catarina. Lake
Texcoco reconstruction based on Carballo (2017). Black pyramids indicate archaeological sites (mostly Preclassic) mentioned in the text. Yellow rectangle denotes
the area covered in Fig. 2 showing the eastern slopes of Iztaccíhuatl and Popocatépetl, and the Nealtican lava-flow field, where most of the field data was collected. B.
Location of the Sierra Nevada (SN) within the TMVB and major plate-tectonic features of southern Mexico. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

2
C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Fig. 2. A) Hillshade-Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the Popocatépetl volcano area showing the extent of the Lorenzo Plinian pumice deposits (>50 cm isopach
from Siebe et al., 1996; and this study, see Fig. 14A), the Nealtican lava-flow field, and main ravines at the eastern slope of Iztaccíhuatl that served for channeling
lahars (yellow arrows indicate flow direction) toward the Puebla plain. Sampling points (radiocarbon and paleomagnetic samples), location of stratigraphic sections
shown in Fig. 4 and Appendix 1, archaeological sites, and towns are also indicated. B) Close-up view of the Tetimpa area. (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

initiated in 1993 and continued for almost three decades with in and column height (Table 1).
terruptions) including stratigraphic relations, distribution and thick Thin sections of pumice and lava samples were studied under the
ness, and sedimentary structures. Grain-size distribution and polarizing microscope and modal mineralogical analyses (Table 2) were
componentry of the LP fallout were determined in the laboratory. With carried out with the aid of an automated stage. Pumice samples were
this data it was possible to estimate the area covered, ejected volume, analyzed for whole rock major and trace elements (Table 3) at Activa
magma discharge rate, magnitude (volcanic explosivity index = VEI), tion Laboratories Inc., Ancaster, Canada (analytical procedures,

3
C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Table 1 disruption on nearby populations, it was desirable to determine its age

Physical parameters of Popocatépetl’s Lorenzo Plinian eruption and their com with more confidence. For this purpose, a total of 20 carbon-bearing
parison with other Popocatépetl (Ochre, Tutti Frutti, and White) Plinian erup samples (mostly charcoal) were collected at different outcrops (Appen
tions (for volume calculations see Appendix 2). dix 1) for radiocarbon dating (Table 4). Of these, the majority (17) were
Volcano Popocatépetl Popocatépetl Popocatépetl Popocatépetl dated by the conventional method at the Radiocarbon Laboratory
Eruption Lorenzo Ochre Tutti Frutti White (University of Arizona, Tucson). Additional three samples were dated by
Pumice Pumice Pumice the accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) method at Beta Analytic
Age ~40 BCE 4950 y BP 14,100 y BP 23,500 y BP
(Miami, Florida).
10-cm-isopach 602 km2 493 km2 5131 km2 2486 km2 Paleomagnetic samples were cored at four sites within active
area quarries (POP-2, POP-3, POP-4, and TET; Table 5, Fig. 2), located at
5-cm-isopleth 173 km2 64 km2 1839 km2 332 km2 opposing margins of the Nealtican lava flow field. These places were
area
selected because the interior of lava flows is well exposed and not
1-cm-isopleth 380 km2 358 km2 4925 km2 1101 km2
area affected by post-emplacement movement. See Appendix 5 for details on
Proximal tephra 0.4 km3 0.3 km3 2.2 km3 3.5 km3 paleomagnetic sampling, laboratory methods, rock magnetic properties,
volume (1), flow-mean directions and paleo-intensity determinations, and paleo
(2), (3) magnetic dating.
Total tephra 0.6 km3 0.7 km3 5.0 km3 8.5 km3
volume (4)
Pumice density 800 700 900 570 3. Regional geology and stratigraphic summary
(kg/m3)
Tephra mass 0.48 × 1012 0.49 × 1012 4.5 × 1012 4.85 × 1012 The local basement underneath Popocatépetl, first described by Fries
(kg)
(1960, 1966), crops out to the south of the volcano at altitudes between
Volume (DRE), 0.2 km3 0.2 km3 1.8 km3 1.9 km3
(andesite 1200 and 1800 m a.s.l. It consists of Cretaceous marine limestones
magma (Cuautla and Morelos Formations) that were folded during the Laramide
density = orogenesis and are unconformably covered by terrigenous sediments of
2500 kg/m3) the Eocene-Oligocene Balsas Group. These were intruded ~20.7 Ma
Crosswind 15 km 9.0 km 37.9 km 17.4 km
range (10-cm
(40Ar/39Ar date, see Gómez-Tuena et al., 2008) ago by small subvolcanic
isopleth) (9) granodiorite stocks that produced metamorphic contact aureoles with
Downwind 32 km 23 km 101 km 45 km local skarn-type metasomatic mineralization (Aguilar-Murillo, 2012;
range (10-cm Mares-Tepanohaya, 2014). Volcanism in this area was initiated probably
isopleth) (9)
in the Miocene as evidenced by the calc-alkaline rocks of the Tepexco
Column height 28 km 25 km 44 km 33 km
(9) formation (Fries, 1960). Radiometric ages (40Ar/39Ar) of rocks from the
Volcanic 4 4 6 5 Sierra Nevada (Tláloc, Telapón, Iztaccíhuatl, and Popocatépetl strato
Explosivity volcanoes) range between 1.8 Ma and present. Whether activity has
Index (10) systematically migrated southwards over time along this important
References (5) (6) (7) (8)
chain as postulated by Cadoux et al. (2011) is debatable (Macías et al.,
References: (1) Pyle (1989); (2) Pyle (1995); (3) Fierstein and Nathenson (1992); 2012). However, it is beyond doubt that Popocatépetl, the southernmost
(4) Sulpizio (2005); (5) Arana-Salinas et al. (2010); (6) Bonasia et al. (2014); (7) volcano of this chain, has been the most active over the past 500,000
Sosa-Ceballos et al. (2012); (8) Siebe et al. (2017); (9) Carey and Sparks (1986); years, displaying important and recurrent activity (Siebe and Macías,
(10) Newhall and Self (1982) 2006; Sunyé-Puchol et al., 2022).
The modern cone of Popocatépetl is built on the remnants of at least
including detection limits and analytical uncertainties are indicated in three previously existing cones (Robin and Boudal, 1987; Siebe et al.,
the table’s caption). In addition, samples were collected for sieve- 1995; Gisbert et al., 2022) that were destroyed by cataclysmic eruptions
analyses (grain-size distribution histograms) and componentry from of the Bezymianny or Mount Saint Helens type (Siebert, 1984). The
the different stratigraphic levels of the main fallout unit at locality PO- resulting debris avalanche deposits (Fig. 3), all together form a fan that
15040 (Fig. 2) at a distance of 6.5 km ENE from the crater along the main covers almost 1500 km2 and reaches 72 km horizontal distance to the
pumice dispersal axis. south from the present summit crater (Siebe et al., 2017).
Since deposits of this eruption not only represent an excellent The last eruption of this type occurred ~23,500 14C yr B.P. (27,800
stratigraphic marker, but also buried settlements causing a major cal B.P.) and produced an extensive debris avalanche deposit, as well as

Table 2
Modal mineralogical analyses (Vol% free of vesicles) of Lorenzo pumice clasts collected at locality PO-15040.
Sample Phenocrystals* Micro-phenocrystals* Op Gm Total Vs (large) Vs (small)

Plg Opx Cpx Ol Hbl Plg Px

PO40-LP-A 10.8% 3.2% 0.5% 0.7% 0.0% 5.9% 6.2% 5.0% 67.7% 100% 28.8% 11.7%
PO40-LP-B 11.6% 3.3% 1.1% 0.0% 0.0% 4.8% 4.1% 4.4% 70.7% 100% 31.4% 14.3%
PO40-LP-C 19.5% 2.1% 0.6% 0.0% 0.0% 3.9% 5.3% 2.1% 66.5% 100% 32.7% 15.9%
PO40-LP-D 14.8% 3.3% 0.2% 0.5% 0.0% 5.5% 5.7% 3.4% 66.7% 100% 22.3% 16.1%
PO40-LP-E 14.2% 1.3% 1.1% 0.0% 0.0% 6.6% 5.2% 3.9% 67.8% 100% 23.5% 14.4%
PO40-LP-F 18.0% 1.8% 1.0% 0.1% 0.0% 4.4% 7.6% 3.7% 63.4% 100% 11.4% 15.9%
PO40-LP-G 19.0% 2.4% 1.0% 0.0% 0.3% 4.9% 7.0% 3.2% 62.4% 100% 16.6% 20.1%
PO40-LP-H 16.0% 2.0% 1.6% 0.0% 0.0% 4.8% 8.4% 2.7% 64.5% 100% 28.9% 15.3%
PO40-LP-I 16.7% 4.0% 1.3% 0.0% 0.0% 4.2% 6.8% 4.0% 63.0% 100% 18.2% 14.3%
PO40-LP-J 20.0% 3.3% 1.3% 0.0% 0.0% 9.3% 6.4% 3.3% 56.4% 100% 24.3% 21.1%
*
Abbreviations: Plagioclase (Plg), orthopyroxene (Opx), clinopyroxene (Cpx), olivine (Ol), hornblende (Hbl), pyroxene (Px), opaque minerals (Op), groundmass
(Gm), and vesicles (Vs). Phenocrysts (>0.3 mm), micro-phenocrysts (0.3–0.03 mm), vesicles large (>0.3 mm), vesicles small (0.3–0.05 mm), and microvesicles (<0.05
mm). The groundmass includes glass, microlites, and microvesicles.

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C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Table 3
Whole rock major (wt%) and trace element (ppm) analyses of Popocatépetl’s Lorenzo pumice clasts sampled in stratigraphic order (from bottom to top) at locality PO-
15040 (19◦ 02′ 25.9” N, 98◦ 33′ 48.4″, 3085 m asl), where the Plinian deposit reaches 190 cm in thickness.
Sample PO40- PO40- PO40- PO40- PO40- PO40- PO40- PO40- PO40- PO40-
LP-A LP-B LP-C LP-D LP-E LP-F LP-G LP-H LP-I LP-J

Unit Detection Analytical

Symbol Limit Method

SiO2 % 0.01 FUS-ICP 61.25 60.8 61.35 62.32 62.22 61.51 63.29 62.94 62.66 63.56
Al2O3 % 0.01 FUS-ICP 16.61 16.61 16.42 16.87 17.03 16.58 16.45 16.18 16.22 16
Fe2O3(T) % 0.01 FUS-ICP 5.36 5.46 5.44 5.59 5.46 5.44 5.58 5.52 5.55 5.55
MnO % 0.001 FUS-ICP 0.092 0.093 0.093 0.093 0.094 0.094 0.094 0.094 0.093 0.095
MgO % 0.01 FUS-ICP 3.06 3.07 3.08 3.05 3.09 3.07 3.06 3.06 3.03 3.19
CaO % 0.01 FUS-ICP 5.26 5.25 5.2 5.07 5.19 5.18 5.37 5.33 5.33 5.41
Na2O % 0.01 FUS-ICP 3.95 4.04 3.97 4.2 4.07 3.99 3.87 3.84 3.81 3.85
K2O % 0.01 FUS-ICP 1.61 1.63 1.64 1.64 1.71 1.66 1.54 1.53 1.51 1.53
TiO2 % 0.001 FUS-ICP 0.772 0.778 0.777 0.785 0.806 0.787 0.766 0.756 0.754 0.753
P2O5 % 0.01 FUS-ICP 0.17 0.17 0.19 0.18 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.23 0.19
LOI % FUS-ICP 0.9 0.92 0.91 1.01 0.67 0.76 0.73 0.92 1.2 0.7
Total % 0.01 FUS-ICP 99.03 98.82 99.08 100.8 100.5 99.25 100.9 100.3 100.4 100.8
Be ppm 1 FUS-ICP 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1
Sc ppm 0.01 INAA 12.9 12.9 13.1 12.9 13.3 13 13.4 13.3 13 13.4
V ppm 5 FUS-ICP 107 106 107 113 109 107 110 109 111 113
Cr ppm 0.5 INAA 95 84.9 88.1 87.7 80.1 80.4 86.5 79.3 77 84.6
Co ppm 0.1 INAA 14.2 12.5 14.6 13.2 15.4 13.6 13.4 13.9 13.4 13
Ni ppm 1 TD-ICP 26 27 27 27 24 23 24 27 25 28
Cu ppm 1 TD-ICP 12 14 13 21 11 11 11 12 13 13
Zn ppm 1 MI/TD-ICP 83 83 101 94 97 101 83 86 84 85
Ga ppm 1 FUS-MS 18 20 17 20 20 19 20 19 20 20
Ge ppm 0.5 FUS-MS 1 1.2 1 1.2 1.1 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.3
Rb ppm 1 FUS-MS 40 45 38 45 46 44 45 44 44 45
Sr ppm 2 FUS-ICP 430 433 435 436 445 430 420 415 415 413
Y ppm 1 FUS-ICP 22 22 22 22 22 21 21 20 20 20
Zr ppm 1 FUS-ICP 163 162 164 145 165 164 144 143 143 143
Nb ppm 0.2 FUS-MS 4.3 4.6 3.9 4.5 4.6 4.5 4.7 4.6 4.7 4.7
Cs ppm 0.1 FUS-MS 2.1 2.2 1.9 2.2 2.3 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.3
Ba ppm 1 FUS-ICP 415 415 422 405 432 423 393 388 387 391
La ppm 0.05 FUS-MS 14.2 15.2 13.1 15.3 15.8 15 43.9 15.3 15.1 15.6
Ce ppm 0.05 FUS-MS 30.5 32.6 28.1 32.8 33.3 32.5 60.8 33.4 32.4 33.1
Pr ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 3.76 3.99 3.42 4.11 4.14 4.12 4.16 4.13 4.02 4.1
Nd ppm 0.05 FUS-MS 15.4 17.1 15.2 17.1 17.6 17.2 17.3 17.7 16.5 17.7
Sm ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 3.67 4.11 3.54 3.95 4.18 4.02 4.05 4.17 4.03 4.04
Eu ppm 0.005 FUS-MS 1.04 1.17 0.962 1.16 1.18 1.15 1.19 1.17 1.18 1.15
Gd ppm 0.1 FUS-MS 3.67 3.86 3.47 3.93 4.24 3.91 3.9 4.06 4.01 3.85
Tb ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 0.6 0.61 0.55 0.62 0.65 0.6 0.65 0.64 0.62 0.63
Dy ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 3.24 3.5 3.06 3.63 3.73 3.59 3.65 3.71 3.54 3.76
Ho ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 0.66 0.7 0.61 0.71 0.73 0.71 0.72 0.7 0.69 0.71
Er ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 1.87 1.98 1.84 2.06 1.99 1.95 2 2.13 1.94 2.03
Tm ppm 0.005 FUS-MS 0.281 0.308 0.257 0.308 0.3 0.285 0.297 0.31 0.305 0.311
Yb ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 1.89 1.99 1.67 2.02 2.04 1.87 2.07 1.94 2.04 2.03
Lu ppm 0.002 FUS-MS 0.3 0.319 0.282 0.304 0.328 0.296 0.31 0.315 0.306 0.319
Hf ppm 0.1 FUS-MS 3.6 3.7 3.2 3.7 3.7 3.6 3.6 3.8 3.6 3.7
Ta ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 0.35 0.37 0.3 0.35 0.39 0.34 0.36 0.41 0.37 0.38
Tl ppm 0.05 FUS-MS 0.22 0.28 0.2 0.3 0.28 0.25 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.26
Pb ppm 5 TD-ICP 23 29 48 43 41 60 22 31 28 28
Th ppm 0.05 FUS-MS 3.74 3.96 3.49 3.99 4.16 3.99 4.14 4.07 4.03 4.07
U ppm 0.01 FUS-MS 1.27 1.39 1.2 1.42 1.36 1.33 1.4 1.41 1.41 1.41

asl = above see level, LOI = loss on ignition, INAA = Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis, FUS-ICP = Fusion-Inductively Coupled Plasma, TD-ICP = Total
Digestion-Inductively Coupled Plasma.
Further details of analytical procedures are described in the Actlabs website at [Link].

the Plinian White Pumice fallout blanket (Fig. 3) and the Tochimilco 1999; Siebe and Macías, 2006). All calibrated age-ranges are at the 2σ
andesite lava flow field, all of which cover extensive areas to the south of level by using CALIB 8.2 developed by Stuiver et al. (2021) and all three
the present cone (Siebe et al., 2017). Since then, Popocatépetl’s present of these eruptions fall clearly within the time of human occupation of
summit cone was built as a result of numerous eruptions, including at this area. Their primary deposits (pumice fallout and pyroclastic density
least 6 high-magnitude Plinian eruptions. Among these, the 14,100 14C currents) cover extensive areas to the E and NE of the present crater,
yr B.P. (~17,000 cal B.P.) “Tutti Frutti” eruption (Fig. 3) was probably including the SE slopes of neighboring Iztaccíhuatl. After initial depo
the most powerful and its fallout deposits were dispersed toward the NW sition, intense reworking of these deposits by rain precipitation led to
(Siebe et al., 1999; Sosa-Ceballos et al., 2012). The most recent Plinian the formation of voluminous pulses of lahars that flooded the sur
eruptions include the 4965 14C yr B.P. (cal 3945–3640 BCE) “Ochre rounding plains, mainly toward the E and SE in the Puebla and Atlixco
Pumice” (Arana-Salinas et al., 2010), the ~40 BCE “Lorenzo Pumice” valleys (Siebe et al., 1996), drained by the Atoyac and Nexapa rivers
(this study), and the ~823 CE “Pink Pumice” (Siebe et al., 1996), all with (Fig. 1), respectively.
dispersal axes toward the NE quadrant (Siebe et al., 1996; Panfil et al.,

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C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Table 4
Radiocarbon ages related to the Lorenzo Pumice Plinian sequence from Popocatépetl volcano, and to other eruptions of similar age from the Sierra Chichinautzin
volcanic field in the southern basin of Mexico. Calibrated age ranges (1 and 2 σ) were calculated with the program Calib 8.2 which uses the calibration datasets
provided by Stuiver et al. (2021).
Conventional Calibrated Calibrated Median Lab. No. Sample δ 13C Dated material Location Latitude Longitude Altitude Reference
date (yr BP) age range age range probability (‰) and stratigraphic (N) (W) (asl)
(BCE/CE) (BCE/CE) (cal BCE/ position
(1σ) (2σ) CE)

2200 ± 65 362-240 393-97 BCE, 256 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 236- 71-57 BCE 3236 1 (1973)
194 BCE,
188-176 BCE
2225 ± 95 392-173 BCE 537-532 266 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 516-36 2516 1, trench VIII, wall (1973)
BCE, 14 1e
BCE-4 CE
2285 ± 80 412-340 736-695 323 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 324- BCE, 663- 3235 1 (1970)
200 BCE 649 BCE,
546-104
BCE
2335 ± 115 736-695 776-151 436 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 663- BCE, 130- 2517 1, trench VIII, wall (1973)
649 BCE, 122 BCE 1c
546-349
BCE, 311-
206 BCE
2380 ± 65 724-706 760-677 497 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 701- BCE, 673- 3094 1 (1970)
699 BCE, 361 BCE,
662-651 272-266
BCE, 545- BCE, 241-
390 BCE 235 BCE
2395 ± 40 537-531 747-689 483 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 517- BCE, 665- 3239 1 (1973)
402 BCE 644 BCE,
565-392
BCE
2400 ± 70 738-693 768-384 523 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 664- BCE 3242 2 (1973)
648 BCE,
547-397 BCE
2485 ± 70 770-540 778-414 614 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 526- BCE 3241 2 (1973)
522 BCE
2500 ± 40 770-737 788-478 635 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 694- BCE 3237 1 (1973)
663 BCE,
648-547 BCE
2510 ± 90 788-659 803-409 625 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 657- BCE 3238 1 (1973)
540 BCE
2550 ± 90 805-721 890-883 651 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 707- BCE, 832- 2515 1, trench VII, wall (1973)
662 BCE, 408 BCE 1a, b
652-544 BCE
2575 ± 40 806-755 811-744 770 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 680- BCE, 691- 4626 2 (1970)
670 BCE, 664 BCE,
608-595 BCE 646-548
BCE
2645 ± 65 898-863 974-954 818 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 847- BCE, 933- 3244 2 (1973)
775 BCE 747 BCE,
689-665
BCE, 644-
550 BCE
2690 ± 80 924-792 BCE 1051-750 864 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 685- 2513 1, bell-shaped (1973)
666 BCE, strorage pit G,
637-588 upper fill
BCE, 580-
570 BCE
3250 ± 80 1612-1572 1740-1712 1525 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 1568- BCE, 1697- 3240 2 (1970)
1440 BCE 1382 BCE,
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Table 4 (continued )
Conventional Calibrated Calibrated Median Lab. No. Sample δ 13C Dated material Location Latitude Longitude Altitude Reference
date (yr BP) age range age range probability (‰) and stratigraphic (N) (W) (asl)
(BCE/CE) (BCE/CE) (cal BCE/ position
(1σ) (2σ) CE)

1341-1311
BCE
3280 ± 85 1665-1660 1864-1853 1561 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from Site Moyotzingo − − − Aufdermauer
BCE, 1630- BCE, 1768- 2514 1, bell-shaped (1973)
1446 BCE 1393 BCE, strorage pit G,
1335-1324 lower fill
BCE
1680 ± 365 92-77 BCE, 514-500 324 CE Hv- − − Charcoal from San Francisco − − − Aufdermauer
54 BCE-690 BCE, 486 2698 bell-shaped Acatepec (1970)
CE, 696-703 BCE-1051 strorage pit No.
CE, 741-773 CE, 1079- 16, 125-135 cm
CE 1154 CE depth
1815 ± 240 45 BCE-440 377 BCE- 203 CE Hv- − − Charcoal from San Francisco − − − Walter (1970)
CE, 451-455 656 CE 2699 bell-shaped Acatepec
CE, 460-478 strorage pit No.
CE, 496-534 21, 135-150 cm
CE depth
2000 ± 90 146-141 342-321 11 CE Hv- − − Charcoal from San Francisco − − − Walter (1970)
BCE, 107 BCE, 201 2696 bell-shaped Acatepec
BCE-126 CE BCE-235 CE strorage pit No. 5,
210-220 cm depth
2050 ± 160 351-288 409 BCE- 61 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from San Francisco − − − Walter (1970)
BCE, 227- 265 CE, 272- 2700 bell-shaped Acatepec
220 BCE, 351 CE, 356- strorage pit No.
209 BCE-129 361 CE 13, 180-190 cm
CE depth
2090 ± 75 339-325 358-276 110 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from San Francisco − − − Walter (1970)
BCE, 199-32 BCE, 261- 2702 bell-shaped Acatepec
BCE, 17 BCE- 244 BCE, strorage pit No. 3,
7 CE 234 BCE-81 190-200 cm depth
CE, 98-109
CE
2105 ± 120 353-285 397 BCE- 128 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from San Francisco − − − Walter (1970)
BCE, 229- 132 CE, 138- 2695 bell-shaped Acatepec
215 BCE, 163 CE, 188- strorage pit No. 3,
212 BCE-21 202 CE 75 cm depth
CE
2175 ± 130 381-92 BCE, 724-706 211 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from San Francisco − − − Walter (1970)
77-54 BCE BCE, 701- 2710 bell-shaped Acatepec
699 BCE, strorage pit No.
662-651 22, 155-170 cm
BCE, 545 depth
BCE-128 CE
2190 ± 120 386-102 715-712 229 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from San Francisco − − − Walter (1970)
BCE, 66-60 BCE 660- 2694 bell-shaped Acatepec
BCE 656 BCE, strorage pit No. 8,
541 BCE-83 130-160 cm depth
CE, 96-115
CE
2220 ± 95 391-171 BCE 515-499 261 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from San Francisco − − − Walter (1970)
BCE, 488-32 2697 bell-shaped Acatepec
BCE, 17 strorage pit No. 1,
BCE-7 CE 210-230 cm depth
2265 ± 195 724-706 806 BCE- 328 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal from San Francisco − − − Walter (1970)
BCE, 701- 129 CE 2701 bell-shaped Acatepec
699 BCE, strorage pit No.
662-651 15, 160-220 cm
BCE, 545-50 depth
BCE
1510 ± 60 441-450 CE, 432-646 CE 557 CE Hv- − − Charcoal in Nealtican − − 2350 m Seele (1973,
478-495 CE, 5417 Lorenzo Plinian unpublished)
535-609 CE, pumice fallout.
619-639 CE
1515 ± 45* 443-448 CE, 434-467 CE, 559 CE Hv- − − Charcoal in Nealtican − − 2350 m Seele (1973,
480-494 CE, 473-520 CE, 5570 paleosol with unpublished)
536-605 CE, 526-642 CE pottery and
628-634 CE agricultural
furrows below
Lorenzo Plinian
pumice fallout.
1515 ± 275* 234-775 CE, 95-73 BCE, 518 CE Hv- − − Charcoal in Nealtican − − 2350 m Seele (1973,
788-826 CE 56 BCE- 5418 paleosol with unpublished)
1048 CE, pottery and
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7
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1082-1131 agricultural
CE, 1138- furrows above
1151 CE Lorenzo Plinian
pumice fallout.
1625 ± 70* 382-388 CE, 254-287 CE, 451 CE Hv- − − Charcoal in Nealtican − − 2350 m Seele (1973,
391-397 CE, 324-592 CE 5419 paleosol with unpublished)
402-543 CE pottery and
agricultural
furrows above
Lorenzo Plinian
pumice fallout.
1680 ± 65* 254-287 CE, 245-538 CE 380 CE Hv- − − Charcoal in Nealtican − − 2350 m Seele (1973,
324-434 CE, 5568 paleosol with unpublished)
467-474 CE, pottery and
518-528 CE agricultural
furrows above
Lorenzo Plinian
pumice fallout.
1710 ± 80* 246-301 CE, 168-186 CE, 349 CE Hv- − − Charcoal in Nealtican − − 2350 m Seele (1973,
303-418 CE 203-548 CE 5567 paleosol with unpublished)
pottery and
agricultural
furrows above
Lorenzo Plinian
pumice fallout.
1820 ± 65* 129-145 CE, 79-100 CE, 228 CE Hv- − − Charcoal in Nealtican − − 2350 m Seele (1973,
153-256 CE, 106-383 CE, 5420 paleosol with unpublished)
283-326 CE 386-393 CE, pottery and
395-402 CE agricultural
furrows above
Lorenzo Plinian
pumice fallout.
1960 ± 65 41-9 BCE, 1 98-70 BCE, 64 CE Hv- − − Charcoal in Nealtican − − 2350 m Seele (1973,
BCE-129 CE 58 BCE-233 5113 Lorenzo Plinian unpublished)
CE pumice fallout.
2645 ± 110 968-958 1047-1028 805 BCE GX- − − Carbonized wood Cholula, UDLA − − − Mountjoy and
BCE, 931- BCE, 1020- 2256 from Pit 6, Middle campus Petersen
748 BCE, 458 BCE, Formative, Middle (1973)
688-665 441-418 Formative
BCE, 643- BCE context.
567 BCE
2300 ± 70 415-346 735-695 359 BCE Ham- − − Charcoal between E slope − − 3300 m Miehlich
BCE, 316- BCE, 663- 819 Lorenzo Plinian (1984)
204 BCE 649 BCE, pumice and
546-169 underlying lahar
BCE deposit.
2150 ± 125 362-240 475-434 182 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal in Totimehuacan − − − Spranz (1996)
BCE, 236-47 BCE, 423 1151 Preclassic
BCE BCE-133 CE, archaeological
137-166 CE, context.
187-203 CE
2300 ± 55 408-352 537-532 359 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal in Xochitécatl − − − Spranz (1996)
BCE, 286- BCE, 516- 4429 Preclassic
229 BCE, 337 BCE, archaeological
218-210 BCE 327-198 context.
BCE
2430 ± 60 744-691 758-679 552 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal in Totimehuacan − − − Spranz (1996)
BCE, 664- BCE, 672- 1947 Preclassic
646 BCE, 400 BCE archaeological
548-408 BCE context.
2645 ± 90 926-753 1013-515 812 BCE Hv- − − Charcoal in Totimehuacan − − − Spranz (1996)
BCE, 682- BCE 1714 Preclassic
668 BCE, archaeological
631-624 context.
BCE, 610-
593 BCE
1800 ± 60* 167-186 CE, 123-404 CE 255 CE Beta- − − Charred material 2.2 km SE of San 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 2441 m Plunket and
203-263 CE, 99431 from household Nicolás de los 53.3″ 00.2″ Uruñuela
275-347 CE hearth. Late Ranchos. (1998)
Tetimpa.
1910 ± 60* 63-211 CE 41-10 BCE, 124 CE Beta- − − Charred roofing 2.1 km SE of San 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 2438 m Plunket and
0-245 CE 99433 material. Late Nicolás de los 53.7″ 01.8″ Uruñuela
Tetimpa. Ranchos. (1998)
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1930 ± 80* 17–209 CE 103–65 BCE, 98 CE I-18291 − − Charred material 1.9 km SE of San 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 2413 m Plunket and
60 BCE–255 from household Nicolás de los 39.2″ 22.7″ Uruñuela
CE, 286–324 hearth. Late Ranchos. (1998)
CE Tetimpa.
1940 + 60* 16-132 CE, 45 BCE-230 88 CE Beta- − − Charred material 2.2 km SE of San 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 2441 m Plunket and
138-163 CE, CE 99430 from wattle-and- Nicolás de los 53.3″ 0.2″ Uruñuela
188-202 CE daub storage bin. Ranchos. (1998)
Late Tetimpa.
2070 ± 80* 196–185 357–278 84 BCE I-17815 T94/2- − Charred material 2.9 km W of San 19◦ 02′ 98◦ 27′ 2324 m Plunket and
BCE, 178 BCE, 87 from household Buenaventura 53.5″ 17.8″ Uruñuela
BCE–25 CE, 258–245 hearth. Late Nealtican. (1998)
50–55 CE BCE, 233 Tetimpa.
BCE–124 CE
2150 ± 80* 353–285 388–25 BCE, 188 BCE I-17814 T94/2- − Charred material 2.9 km W of San 19◦ 02′ 98◦ 27′ 2324 m Plunket and
BCE, 17 BCE–7 CE 29 from household Buenaventura 53.5″ 17.8″ Uruñuela
229–216 shrine. Late Nealtican. (1998)
BCE, 211–92 Tetimpa.
BCE, 77–54
BCE
2230 ± 80* 390-337 452-446 271 BCE 1- T94/1- − Charred material 1.5 km SE of San 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 2432 m Plunket and
BCE, 328- BCE 17812 401 from trash pit. Nicolás de los 50.5″ 31.1″ Uruñuela
198 BCE Early Tetimpa. Ranchos. (1998)
2270 ± 80* 403-342 716-711 301 BCE 1- T94/1- − Charred material 1.5 km SE of San 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 2432 m Plunket and
BCE, 322- BCE, 660- 17813 432 from trash pit. Nicolás de los 50.5″ 31.1″ Uruñuela
201 BCE 655 BCE, Early Tetimpa. Ranchos. (1998)
541-97 BCE,
70-57 BCE
2290 ± 80* 451-447 742-692 340 BCE 1- − − Charred material 1.5 km SE of San 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 2432 m Plunket and
BCE, 416- BCE, 664- 17626 from fill. Early Nicolás de los 50.5″ 31.1″ Uruñuela
340 BCE, 647 BCE, Tetimpa. Ranchos. (1998)
325-199 BCE 548-106
BCE
2610 ± 60* 892-880 905-730 786 BCE Beta- − − Charred material 1.5 km SE of San 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 2432 m Plunket and
BCE, 834- BCE, 727- 99428 from household Nicolás de los 50.5″ 31.1″ Uruñuela
753 BCE, 725 BCE, hearth. Early Ranchos. (1998)
682-668 706-702 Tetimpa.
BCE, 631- BCE, 698-
625 BCE, 662 BCE,
610-593 BCE 651-544
BCE
2280 ± 60* 401–351 479–170 302 BCE Beta- 94-L6- − Charcoal in base 1.6 km SE of San 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 2433 m Panfil et al.
BCE, BCE 78951 CS3.5c of San Nicolás Nicolás de los 39.3″ 38.0″ (1999)
290–226 lacustrine Ranchos.
BCE, sequence.
222–208
BCE
1700 ± 60 253-288 CE, 235-442 CE, 357 CE Beta- − − Charred material Cholula, Great − − − Plunket and
323-418 CE 449-479 CE, 162998 from fill covering Pyramid Uruñuela
494-536 CE W façade of (2005)
Structure I-A.
1760 ± 40 242-263 CE, 228-404 CE 304 CE Beta- − − Charred material Cholula, Great − − − Plunket and
275-347 CE 188349 from fill placed Pyramid Uruñuela
directly on top of (2005)
second level of
north face of
Structure I-B
(Chapulines
mural).
1790 ± 50 212-261 CE, 129-145 CE, 281 CE Beta- − − Carbonized bean Cholula, Great − − − Plunket and
276-342 CE 153-382 CE, 188342 from bell-shaped Pyramid Uruñuela
388-391 CE, pit beneath (2005)
397-402 CE Structure I-A (Pit
1), early
construction
phase of the
pyramid.
1810 ± 40 207-257 CE, 126-262 CE, 241 CE Beta- − − Charred material Cholula, Great − − − Plunket and
283-327 CE 276-346 CE 162997 from fill of phase Pyramid Uruñuela
Sub-A. (2005)
1820 ± 40 168-186 CE, 124-260 CE, 229 CE Beta- − − Carbonized maize Cholula, Great − − − Plunket and
203-254 CE, 278-338 CE 188347 kernel from trash Pyramid Uruñuela
287-324 CE lens within fill (2005)
placed over west
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side of Structure I-
A close central
staircase.
1850 ± 50 127-239 CE 66-259 CE, 188 CE Beta- − − Carbonized maize Cholula, Great − − − Plunket and
280-330 CE 188346 kernel from sandy Pyramid Uruñuela
lens between the (2005)
two stepped
bodies of
Structure Sub-I-A.
1870 ± 50 123-232 CE 28-44 CE, 168 CE Beta- − − Fragment of Cholula, Great − − − Plunket and
58-253 CE, 188343 carbonized bean Pyramid Uruñuela
289-320 CE from bell-shaped (2005)
pit beneath
Structure I- A (Pit
1), early
construction
phase of the
pyramid.
1910 ± 50 77-206 CE 24-17 BCE, 127 CE Beta- − − Carbonized bean Cholula, Great − − − Plunket and
7-238 CE 188345 from sandy fill Pyramid Uruñuela
between adobe (2005)
walls of Structure
Sub-I-A.
1920 ± 50 63-171 CE, 32-16 BCE, 114 CE Beta- − − Carbonized seed Cholula, Great − − − Plunket and
183-204 CE 6-232 CE 188344 from bell-shaped Pyramid Uruñuela
pit beneath (2005)
Structure I-A (Pit
2).
1930 ± 50 26-49 CE, 38-12 BCE, 100 CE Beta- − − Charred material Cholula, Great − − − Plunket and
56-132 CE, 3-220 CE 188348 from east side of Pyramid Uruñuela
138-163 CE, second level of (2005)
188-202 CE Structure I-B
(Chapulines
mural) between
clay plaster and
base of tablero.
1930 ± 50 26-49 CE, 38-12 BCE, 100 CE Beta- − − Charred material Cholula, Great − − − Plunket and
56-132 CE, 3-220 CE 188351 from fill placed Pyramid Uruñuela
138-163 CE, directly on top of (2005)
188-202 CE the second level of
the north face of
Structure I-B1 .
1970 ± 100 49 BCE-171 341-323 47 CE Beta- − − Charred material Cholula, − − − Plunket and
CE, 183-204 BCE, 200 188354 from inside water Rancho de la Uruñuela
CE BCE-253 CE, well (Feature 1, Virgen, NE of (2005)
289-322 CE Pit 6), Terminal Edificio Rojo
Formative?
1980 ± 50 39-12 BCE, 93-75 BCE, 40 CE Beta- − − Charred material Cholula, Great − − − Plunket and
3-83 CE, 96- 55 BCE-171 188350 from fill placed Pyramid Uruñuela
114 CE CE, 183-204 directly on top of (2005)
CE second level of
north face of
Structure I-B
(Chapulines
mural).
2010 ± 80 102-66 BCE, 337-328 0 Beta- − − Charred material Cholula, − − − Plunket and
60 BCE-89 BCE, 198 188352 from adobe wall of Rancho de la Uruñuela
CE, 91-121 BCE-211 CE Structure 2 in Pit 5 Virgen, NE of (2005)
CE (Wall 1), Terminal Edificio Rojo
Formative?
2030 ± 70 148-137 342-321 25 BCE Beta- − − Charred material Cholula, − − − Plunket and
BCE, 109 BCE, 201 188353 from adobe wall of Rancho de la Uruñuela
BCE-70 CE BCE-131 CE, Substructure 1 in Virgen, NE of (2005)
139-159 CE, Pit 5 (Wall 4), Edificio Rojo
189-201 CE Terminal
Formative?
2800 ± 100 1104-1100 1255-1249 978 BCE Beta- − − Charred material Cholula, UDLA − − − Plunket and
BCE, 1077- BCE, 1224- 188355 from bell- shaped campus Uruñuela
1071 BCE, 794 BCE pit (Feature 1), (2005)
1054-829 Middle Formative
BCE context.
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2010 ± 40* 46 BCE–31 102–66 BCE, 3 CE Beta- − − Carbonized corn Tetimpa − − − Plunket and
CE, 39–61 CE 60 BCE–121 146572 cob found sealed Uruñuela
CE inside a jar. (2006)
2030 ± 60* 104–64 BCE, 197–183 23 BCE Beta- − − Charred material Tetimpa − − − Plunket and
61 BCE–66 BCE, 179 146575 from a roasting pit Uruñuela
CE BCE–126 CE excavated into a (2006)
patio floor.
1695 ± 100 243-435 CE, 129-145 CE, 365 CE A-8214 95112-C − 18.6 Charcoal in PDC Road Paso de 19◦ 04′ 98◦ 35′ 48″ 3210 m Siebe et al.
464-475 CE, 153-573 CE (pumice and ash) Cortés- 57″ (1996)
500-508 CE, deposit, matrix- Xalitzintla.
516-530 CE supported,
reddish, below
"Intermediate"
pumice fallout.
1790 ± 65 205-363 CE 122-412 CE 274 CE A-8078 9481 − 23.6 Charcoal in Road Paso de 19◦ 05′ 98◦ 37′ 08″ 3540 m Siebe et al.
reworked deposit Cortés- 21″ (1996)
with pottery Xalitzintla.
below Pink
Plinian pumice
fallout and above
Buenavista lava
flow.
1825 ± 175 13-416 CE 336-329 207 CE A-8027 9451 − 25.7 Charcoal in 0.5 km W of 19◦ 04′ 98◦ 39′ 08″ 3650 m Siebe et al.
BCE, 198 (Ta-1) reworked dark Paso de Cortés. 57″ (1996)
BCE-593 CE grey ash below
Pink Plinian
pumice fallout.
2165 ± 65* 355-281 380-50 BCE 211 BCE A-8163 95102 − 24.0 Charcoal in Road Paso de 19◦ 05′ 98◦ 36′ 03″ 3300 m Siebe et al.
BCE, 231- (Ta-1c) reworked dark Cortés- 18″ (1996)
105 BCE grey ash with Xalitzintla.
pumice below
Lorenzo Plinian
pumice fallout.
2330 ± 195 752-682 890-882 419 BCE A-8080 9482 − 24.5 Charcoal in Road Paso de 19◦ 05′ 98◦ 37′ 00″ 3525 m Siebe et al.
BCE, 668- BCE, 833 (Ta+1a) reworked dark Cortés- 20″ (1996)
632 BCE, BCE-81 CE, grey ash below Xalitzintla.
623-611 98-109 CE Lorenzo Plinian
BCE, 592- pumice fallout.
334 BCE,
331-197
BCE, 183-
179 BCE
2470 ± 70 758-679 773-411 603 BCE A-8026 9443 − 24.4 Charcoal in PDC Road Paso de 19◦ 04′ 98◦ 38′ 35″ 3805 m Siebe et al.
BCE, 672- BCE (Ta-1) (pumice and ash) Cortés- 08″ (1996)
603 BCE, deposit below Tlamacaz.
598-514 Pink Plinian
BCE, 500- pumice fallout.
487 BCE
2515 ± 70 786-784 799-457 632 BCE A-8322 95177 − 25.5 Charcoal in PDC NE slope. 19◦ 04′ 98◦ 34′ 45″ 3225 m Siebe et al.
BCE, 780- BCE, 442- (pumice and ash) 05″ (1996)
720 BCE, 417 BCE deposit directly
708-662 above Lorenzo
BCE, 652- Plinian pumice
544 BCE fallout.
2750 ± 75 979-949 1109-1091 910 BCE A-8162 95102 − 23.7 Charcoal in PDC Road Paso de 19◦ 05′ 98◦ 36′ 03″ 3300 m Siebe et al.
BCE, 936- BCE, 1085- (Ta+1B) (pumice and ash) Cortés- 18″ (1996)
816 BCE 1065 BCE, deposit directly Xalitzintla.
1058-793 above Lorenzo
BCE Plinian pumice
fallout.
2750 ± 135 1110-1091 1367-1359 935 BCE A-8109 9592 − 29.2 Charcoal in PDC Road Paso de 19◦ 05′ 98◦ 36′ 42″ 3420 m Siebe et al.
BCE, 1085- BCE, 1289- (Ta+1/- (pumice and ash) Cortés- 22″ (1996)
1065 BCE, 719 BCE, 1) deposit directly Xalitzintla.
1058-793 708-662 above Ochre
BCE BCE, 653- Plinian pumice
543 BCE fallout.
1495 ± 75 442-449 CE, 420-658 CE 564 CE A-8156 9484 − 25.4 Charcoal in Road Nealtican- 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 05″ 2420 m This study
479-494 CE, (TA-2A) reworked upper San Nicolás. 27″
536-647 CE part of Lorenzo
Plinian pumice
fallout.
1540 ± 55 436-464 CE, 418-607 CE, 524 CE A-8216 95114 − 25.1 Charcoal in Road Nealtican- 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 12″ 2415 m This study
475-499 CE, 622-638 CE (Ta-2) reworked upper San Nicolás. 31″
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509-515 CE, part of Lorenzo

531-593 CE Plinian pumice
fallout.
1635 ± 70 366-368 CE, 251-293 CE, 438 CE A-9157 96383-A − 24.4 Charcoal in PDC W slope, S of 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 42′ 16″ 3000 m This study
377-540 CE 315-578 CE (pumice and ash) Nexpayantla. 41″
deposit above
Ochre Plinian
pumice fallout.
1700 ± 50 258-280 CE, 239-436 CE, 357 CE A-8081 9484 − 24.1 Charcoal in Road Nealtican- 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 05″ 2420 m This study
330-414 CE 464-475 CE, (Ta-3) reworked dark San Nicolás. 27″
499-509 CE, grey ash with
515-531 CE pumice below
Lorenzo pumice
fallout, on top are
pottery and
furrows.
1800 ± 150 75-416 CE 105 BCE- 242 CE A-8652 95279 − 24.7 Charcoal in Trail 19◦ 01′ 98◦ 29′ 51″ 2480 m This study
579 CE reworked pumice Atlimeyaya-San 59″
and ash above Nicolás de los
Lorenzo Plinian Ranchos.
pumice fallout.
1810 ± 235 42-9 BCE, 2 363 BCE- 210 CE A-8107 9592 − 24.6 Charcoal in dilute Road Paso de 19◦ 05′ 98◦ 36′ 42″ 3420 m This study
BCE-439 CE, 655 CE (Ta+2A) PDC deposits Cortés- 22″
451-454 CE, below Pink Xalitzintla.
460-478 CE, pumice fallout.
496-534 CE
1950 ± 30* 26-47 CE, 37-13 BCE, 74 CE Beta- PO- − 19.0 Paleosol Gas-pipeline 19◦ 00′ 98◦ 24′ 2142 m This study
56-88 CE, 4-132 CE, 379813 14001-L underneath trench near S.J. 41.6″ 38.9″
91-120 CE 138-163 CE, Lorenzo Plinian Tecuanipan.
188-202 CE pumice fallout.
2090 ± 95* 346-315 372 BCE-88 111 BCE A-8557 95195 − 26.2 Charred twig from Tetimpa. 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 21″ 2380 m This study
BCE, 204 CE, 92-120 collapsed hut 43″
BCE-23 CE CE under weight of
Lorenzo Plinian
pumice fallout.
2085 ± 55 172-40 BCE, 350-305 100 BCE A-9158 96383-B − 24.2 Charcoal in PDC W slope, S of 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 42′ 16″ 3000 m This study
11 BCE-2 CE BCE, 207 (pumice and ash) Nexpayantla. 41″
BCE-64 CE deposit above
Ochre Plinian
pumice fallout.
2110 ± 55* 197-182 355-281 131 BCE A-8984 95364-B − 23.2 Charcoal in sandy- W base of 19◦ 14′ 98◦ 21′ 24″ 2170 m This study
BCE, 179-48 BCE, 231 silty lahar Xochitécatl hill. 34″
BCE BCE-20 CE sequence.
2115 ± 165* 369 BCE-27 724-706 140 BCE A-9542 97398 − 25.4 Charcoal in sandy- Zacatepec road 19◦ 08′ 98◦ 22′ 28″ 2230 m This study
CE, 46-58 CE BCE, 701- silty lahar junction toward 08″
699 BCE, sequence with Puebla airport.
662-651 embedded
BCE, 545 rounded pumice
BCE-252 CE, and abundant
290-318 CE pottery fragments.
2125 ± 100* 353-284 391 BCE-79 154 BCE A-8980 95362-A − 24.7 Charcoal in sandy- Near Puebla 19◦ 10′ 98◦ 22′ 24″ 2220 m This study
BCE, 230-40 CE, 100-106 silty lahar airport at road 42″
BCE, 10 BCE- CE sequence with toward
1 CE embedded Cacaxtla.
rounded pumice
and abundant
pottery fragments.
2175 ± 55 358-277 380-93 BCE, 230 BCE A-8028 9463 − 24.4 Charcoal in PDC Road above S. 19◦ 04′ 98◦ 42′ 41″ 2970 m This study
BCE, 260- 75-55 BCE (pumice and ash) Pedro Nexapa at 31″
244 BCE, deposit above forest limit.
233-152 BCE paleosol capping
Tutti Frutti
Plinian sequence.
2240 ± 50* 383-350 396-193 281 BCE A-8983 95364-A − 11.8 Charcoal in sandy- W base of 19◦ 14′ 98◦ 21′ 24″ 2170 m This study
BCE, 303- BCE, 189- silty lahar Xochitécatl hill. 34″
298 BCE, 175 BCE sequence.
296-208 BCE
2305 ± 60 413-351 716-711 366 BCE A-8558 95196-A − 10.8 Charcoal in Tetimpa II 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 33″ 2390 m This study
BCE, 295- BCE, 660- paleosol (silty- archaeological 51″
208 BCE 655 BCE, sandy with site.
541-197 pumice and
BCE, 182- ceramics) directly
179 BCE
(continued on next page)

12
C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

above foundations
of a domestic hut.
2415 ± 45 720-708 752-683 514 BCE A-8589 95196-B − 24.5 Charcoal in Tetimpa II 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 28′ 33″ 2390 m This study
BCE, 662- BCE, 667- paleosol (silty- archaeological 51″
652 BCE, 633 BCE, sandy with site.
544-405 BCE 623-611 pumice and
BCE, 592- ceramics) directly
397 BCE below foundations
of a domestic hut .
2570 ± 80 811-735 896-873 676 BCE A-9651 97406 − 25.0 Charcoal in PDC SW slope, road 18◦ 59′ 98◦ 42′ 25″ 3040 m This study
BCE, 695- BCE, 838- (pumice and ash) Atlautla to PPX 40″
663 BCE, 454 BCE, deposit between seismic station.
649-546 BCE 445-416 Ochre (below) and
BCE Pink (above)
Plinian pumice
fallouts.
2730 ± 30* 900-831 BCE 928-810 869 BCE Beta- PO- − 24.1 Paleosol Gas-pipeline 19◦ 00′ 98◦ 24′ 2142 m This study
BCE 379811 14001- underneath silty- trench near S.J. 41.6″ 38.9″
C/D sandy, indurated Tecuanipan.
lahar deposit.
2730 ± 30* 900-831 BCE 928-810 869 BCE Beta- PO- − 23.1 Charcoal in silty- Gas-pipeline 19◦ 00′ 98◦ 24′ 2142 m This study
BCE 379814 14001- sandy, indurated trench near S.J. 41.6″ 38.9″
B/C lahar deposit. Tecuanipan.
2995 ± 140 1401-1051 1508-896 1213 BCE A-9541 97397 − 25.3 Charcoal in sandy- Cholula. 19◦ 03′ 98◦ 18′ 14″ 2150 m This study
BCE BCE, 872- silty lahar 29″
840 BCE sequence under W
staircase of Great
Pyramid of
Cholula.
Xitle Volcano
1670 ± 35 265-273 CE, 256-284 CE, 388 CE Average − − Charcoal in Xitle. − − − Siebe (2000)
350-421 CE 326-438 CE, Strombolian ash-
461-477 CE, and-lapilli fallout.
496-534 CE
1675 ± 40 262-276 CE, 253-290 CE, 382 CE A-8985 − − 23.3 Charcoal at Cuicuilco 19◦ 18′ 99◦ 10′ 2290 m Siebe (2000)
346-421 CE 321-440 CE, contact between pyramid. 03.9″ 53.3″
450-455 CE, Strombolian ash
459-478 CE, fallout and
495-535 CE underlying
paleosol.
1665 ± 65 259-279 CE, 247-299 CE, 398 CE A-9587 − − 23.6 Charcoalized 1.5 km S of Xitle 19◦ 14′ 99◦ 13′ 07″ 2933 m Siebe (2000)
336-437 CE, 305-546 CE twigs in cone. 59″
463-476 CE, Strombolian ash-
498-532 CE and-lapilli fallout.
Chichinautzin
Volcano
1835 ± 55 127-249 CE, 67-265 CE, 209 CE A- A2-05-II- − 23.8 Charcoal in Guespalapa 19◦ 05′ 99◦ 10′ Siebe et al.
297-307 CE 272-350 CE 10729 2C primary ash- slope 10.6″ 55.7″ (2004)
fallout
Jumento
Volcano
2010 ± 30 43 BCE-26 90-80 2 CE Beta- JU-1405 − 23.8 Charcoal at base Jumento 19◦ 12′ 99◦ 18′ 26″ 3609 m Arce et al.
CE, 49-56 CE BCE,53 BCE- 379430 of dilute PDC volcano 01″ (2015)
81 CE, 98- deposits
110 CE underlyimg ash
fallout
2010 ± 30 43 BCE-26 90-80 BCE, 2 CE Beta- JU- − 25.7 Charcoal at base Jumento 19◦ 12′ 99◦ 18′ 26″ 3609 m Arce et al.
CE, 49-56 CE 53 BCE-81 396661 1405-bis of dilute PDC volcano 01″ (2015)
CE, 98-110 deposits
CE underlyimg ash
fallout
2230 ± 30 366-350 387-341 278 BCE Beta- SM- − 23.3 Charcoal at base Jumento 19◦ 11′ 99◦ 19′ 25″ 3503 m Arce et al.
BCE, 302- BCE, 323- 396662 1304-bis of dilute PDC volcano 28″ (2015)
299 BCE, 200 BCE deposits
292-208 BCE underlyimg ash
fallout
Tefra Negra
(Xicomulco
?)
1710 ± 30 262-276 CE, 252-291 CE, 353 CE Beta- Carb- − 24.6 Charcoal twig in Av. Miguel − − − Álvarez-
342-403 CE 318-415 CE 340895 Quevedo dark-grey ash- Angel de García et al.
fallout Quevedo (2019)
(Oásis)
(continued on next page)

13
C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

1820 ± 90 121-263 CE, 8-419 CE 226 CE UNAM- Carb- − 24.9 Charcoal twig in Copilco − − − Álvarez-
275-347 CE 1513 Copilco3 dark-grey ash- arqueological García et al.
fallout site (2019)
*
Radiocarbon dates from excavated contexts under the Lorenzo pumice sequence in the ancient village of Tetimpa, Puebla, on the eastern flank of the Popocatépetl
volcano.

4. Distribution and stratigraphy of the Lorenzo Plinian Pumice archaeological remains under a > 1-m-thick pumice cover revealed both
eruption deposits domestic household patterns and the gradual mode of Tetimpa’s aban
donment prior to the LP eruption. Plunket and Uruñuela (2006) radio
4.1. Previous work carbon dated charred materials under the LP and concluded that a
radiocarbon age of 2010 ± 40 yr B.P. best dates the eruption shifting the
Outcrops of the LP fallout deposit were first noticed by Humboldt in timing of the eruption toward the first century CE.
1804 (Humboldt, 2005) and described by Seele (1973a, 1973b) in the Our own field investigations initiated in 1993 (e.g., Siebe et al.,
Tetimpa and Nealtican areas (Fig. 2) who assumed that they were likely 1996) and were carried out with interruptions over the past three de
the product of an eruption from Popocatépetl. Seele (1973a, 1973b) also cades and confirm the correctness of the stratigraphic descriptions by
noticed the abundance of archaeological artifacts and the occurrence of Panfil (1996) and Panfil et al. (1999) for Tetimpa and adjacent areas on
agricultural furrows and small surface irrigation ditches underneath the NE slope. Because our survey covered a much wider area, including
both the LP and the overlying Pink pumice fallout deposits. Further Popocatépetl’s W and S slopes and the lahar plains in the Puebla valley,
more, he pointed out that ceramic remains underneath the LP displayed we were able to trace the area affected by the LP eruption far beyond the
features diagnostic of the Late Preclassic period (300 BCE to 100 CE) of limits of Tetimpa.
the Mesoamerican archaeological time scale. The first isopach map for
the LP and other evidence showing proof of the Plinian nature of this
eruption and the dispersal axis of its products toward the ENE from 4.2. Stratigraphic summary
Popocatépetl’s crater was published by Siebe et al. (1996), who also
provided first radiocarbon dates placing the timing of the eruption We studied >100 stratigraphic sections exposing the LP eruption
within the period cal 350–50 BCE. These authors also outlined the deposits and show the most significant in Fig. 4. Additional stratigraphic
extensive catastrophic lahar flooding that affected the basin of Puebla columns showing the exact position of our samples dated by the radio
following the explosive phase of the eruption. A more detailed geologic carbon method are depicted in Appendix 1, while Fig. 5 shows a com
study focused on the Tetimpa area (Panfil, 1996; Panfil et al., 1999) posite stratigraphic section. Stratigraphic sections (locations shown in
confirmed in essence the conclusions reached by Siebe et al. (1996), but Fig. 2) mainly in the NE sector of the volcano (Fig. 4, see also Appendix
in addition provided significant stratigraphic refinements and other 1) typically expose: 1) The LP fallout deposit (e.g., sites Po-9484, Po-
amendments, such as an estimate for the height of the Plinian eruption 95114, Po-95279, Po-95196) from the paroxysmal Plinian phase which
column of 20–30 km from an isopleth map and a bulk volume estimate had an ENE dispersal axis; 2) the pyroclstic density current (PDC;
for the LP (Panfil named it “yellow pumice”) of 3.2 km3. These authors Branney and Kokelaar, 2002) deposits (sites Po-9482 and Po-95102)
also provided a new set of radiocarbon ages dating the eruption to produced by the eruptive column collapse at the end of the Plinian
2150–1930 yr B.P. (cal 188 BCE–98 CE). Clear and Plunket (1998) phase that were emplaced around the crater, and have been identified
described figurines found underneath the LP with diagnostic features also on the W slopes (sites Po-97,406, Po-96,383). In outcrops on the
corresponding to the Terminal Preclassic (100–0 BCE), and subse volcano’s slopes, these PDC deposits contain abundant rounded pumice
quently, several articles (e.g., Plunket and Uruñuela, 1998, 2000) re lapilli and their tops are partially reworked. In the plains, the thickness
ported initial results of systematic archaeological excavations in of PDC deposits diminishes and they are typically overlain by 3) post-
Tetimpa. Accordingly, at the time preceding the LP eruption, this area Plinian lahar deposits (sites Po-14001, Po-95362, Po-97398); and
was occupied by a hamlet of farmers living in dispersed households finally, 4) the Nealtican andesite-dacite lava flows (site Po-14004) that
separated by agricultural plots. The excellent preservation of emanated from the El Ombligo alignment of vents (Fig. 2) and poured to
the E where they formed a field of four partly overlapping flows

Table 5
Nealtican lava’s mean paleomagnetic directions published previously (Böhnel and Molina Garza, 2002; Mahgoub et al., 2019; Pérez-Rodríguez et al., 2019) and from
this work. Site coordinates with latitude and longitude; n = number of samples used; Dec Inc. = mean paleomagnetic declination and inclination; R, K, α95 = statistical
parameters; PI = mean paleointensity; PI s.d. = standard deviation of paleointensity.
Site code Latitude (N) Longitude (W) n* Dec Inc R K α95 PI PI s.d. Reference

TET 19 ◦
02′ 38.0″ 98 ◦
26′ 56.0″ 8 352.6 38.6 7.9651 200.67 3.9 – – Böhnel and Molina-Garza (2002)
POP-2, 3, 4 18◦ 59′ 21.4″ 98◦ 28′ 55.2″ 36 359.5 32.4 35.6130 90.43 2.5 76.8 4.2 Mahgoub et al. (2019)
PO-3 19◦ 02′ 42.3″ 98◦ 26′ 46.6″ 7 338.9 32.2 6.9324 88.70 6.4 60.3 2.6 Pérez-Rodríguez et al. (2020)
POP-2 18◦ 59′ 17.5″ 98◦ 28′ 55.5″ 7 357.7 33.3 6.9943 1056.59 1.9 – – This study
POP-3 18◦ 58′ 20.2″ 98◦ 28′ 08.3″ 9 3.4 22.3 8.9707 273.39 3.1 – – This study
POP-4 19◦ 00′ 30.6″ 98◦ 25′ 33.2″ 12 356.3 38.3 11.9748 436.13 2.1 – – This study
POP-2,4 19◦ 00′ 00″ 98◦ 27′ 00″ 19 356.8 36.5 18.9511 367.84 1.8 62.6 3.0 This study
TET, POP-2,4 19◦ 00′ 00″ 98◦ 27′ 00″ 27 355.6 37.1 26.9028 267.57 1.7 – – This study
TET, POP-2,4 19◦ 00′ 00″ 98◦ 27′ 00″ 3 355.6 36.8 3.9960 493.30 5.6 – – This study
POP-2-3-4, PO-3 19◦ 00′ 00″ 98◦ 27′ 00″ 18 – – – – – 61.4 2.7 This study
*
Abbreviations: n = Number of samples used in the calculation of the site mean direction; Dec = Mean paleomagnetic declination; Inc. = Mean paleomagnetic
inclination; R, K, α95 = Statistical parameters; PI = Mean paleointensity; PI s.d. = Standard deviation of paleointensity.

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C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Fig. 3. Map showing major cities and towns in the vicinity of Popocatépetl volcano (modified from Siebe et al., 2017). 10-cm-isopachs of major studied Late
Pleistocene-Holocene Plinian pumice fallout deposits (White, Tutti Frutti, Ochre, and Lorenzo) as well as area covered by the two most recent debris avalanche
deposits are also indicated. Inset shows the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and its position with respect to the active subduction zone.

(Ramírez-Uribe et al., 2022) that can be observed directly overlying the (2.5YR 7/4 to 10YR 8/2). Furthermore, the LP is massive, whereas the
LP fallout. Pink pumice is stratified and usually underlain by the above-mentioned
laminated dilute PDC layers.
4.3. ENE lower slopes and Tetimpa area Also, in this area, the andesitic-dacitic Nealtican lava field, which is
several tens of meters thick (Ramírez-Uribe et al., 2022) can be seen
Best outcrops of the LP Plinian fallout deposit occur to the NE beyond directly above the LP deposit (Figs. 4c and 7a) at the numerous quarries
the volcano’s break in slope (~2400–2200 m a.s.l.) in the Tetimpa area that have started operating during the last decades at the steep lateral
(Panfil, 1996; Panfil et al., 1999), between the towns of San Nicolás de and frontal margins of the lavas. Neither a paleosol nor layers of
los Ranchos and Santa María Acuexcomac, as well as to the NW of reworked material indicate a significant time span between the lavas
Atlimeyaya (Figs. 2 and 4b). In this area (~15–20 km from the crater) and the LP. This suggests that effusive activity initiated shortly after
the LP is ~80 to 140-cm-thick and consists mainly of medium pumice explosive activity, maybe with a difference of days to months. The
lapilli with few cm-sized andesite lithic clasts (Fig. 6). It lies directly morphologies of the flows correspond to block lavas with angular to
above a paleosol developed from older pyroclastic deposits that in turn subrounded blocks at centimeter to meter scale (Fig. 7a). In quarries
overly a debris avalanche deposit dated at ~630 ka (Sunyé-Puchol et al., exposing flow interior, lavas display a coherent core with basal and
2022). The uppermost part (~10–20 cm) of the LP is normally reworked surface breccias (Fig. 7b). At some places, the surface breccia is directly
and grades into an incipient paleosol that is covered by a few-cm-thick overlain by the Pink pumice deposits, but in others an incipient paleosol
stack of silty-sandy laminated dilute PDC layers followed by three and weathering surface separate the lava flows from the overlying Pli
Pink pumice Plinian fallout units (P1, P2, and P3; see Figs. 4 and 5), nian deposits (Fig. 7b), attesting to a longer period of time that must
typically with a total thickness of ~1 m. Both paleosols bear abundant have elapsed between their emplacements.
archaeological remains and the upper part of P3 is frequently reworked In the El Ombligo area, aligned spatter cones correspond to emission
or entirely missing due to weathering and/or agricultural activities on vents of the Nealtican lava-flow field (Fig. 2). The viscous andesitic-
the actual soil. Both pumice fallouts (LP and Pink) are easy to distin dacitic lava flows initially followed an eastward path before bending
guish: the LP displays a yellowish hue (2.5YR 7/6 on the Munsell colour south and reaching distances up to ~17.5 km from the vent, covering an
chart) while the Pink pumice is grayish-yellowish with a pink hue area of ~70 km2 with a total volume 4.2 km3. Ramírez-Uribe et al.

15
C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

(2022) estimated the viscosities of the flows and concluded that the On the southern, western, and northern slopes, the LP fallout is
entire lava field was probably emplaced during a period that lasted ~35 mostly missing, and only few outcrops exposing a thin few-cm-thick
years. The occurrence of xenoliths in the lavas is also well known (e.g., layer were encountered (e.g., Po-95102). Instead, the occurrence of
Schaaf et al., 2005; Ramírez-Uribe et al., 2022). They vary from a few the overlying PDC deposits (Lpf in Fig. 4a) derived from column collapse
centimeters to up to 2 m and include skarn, hornfels, anhydrite, marble, is more frequent (e.g., Po-97406) and attests to the fact that these slopes
and other fragments from the local basement (Fig. 8). were also affected by this deadly phenomenon. In ravines, the PDC de
In addition to burying the LP (and settlements and agricultural fields posits usually form several-m-thick stacks of stratified subunits with
underneath), the Nealtican lava flows concealed stream valleys and rounded pumice blocks (up to several dm in diameter) in a sandy matrix
dammed drainages causing the deposition of a lacustrine sequence near rich in charcoal fragments. In areas between ravines, these flow units
San Nicolás de los Ranchos (see stratigraphic section 94-L6-CS3.5c from become much thinner with smaller embedded cm-sized pumice clasts.
Panfil et al., 1999, depicted in Fig. 4b). This sequence consists of 20–30
m of interbedded clay, silt, and sands, uninterrupted by tephra layers 4.5. Alluvial plains to the NE and E (Puebla area)
and is coeval with the formation of the paleosol observable in the upper
part of the LP deposit in the nearby Tetimpa area. Despite of its weak At greater distances from Popocatépetl, lahar deposits derived from
development, the surface of this soil was reoccupied and farmed (pot highly concentrated flow-mixtures of volcaniclastic material and water
sherds, etc.) several hundred years later during the centuries preceding (Smith and Lowe, 1991) of different ages and related to different erup
the Pink Plinian eruption that occurred ~1100 yr B.P. (Siebe tions are the most common type of volcanic sediment in valleys and
et al.,1996). alluvial plains. Lahar sequences related to the LP eruption were identi
fied at many lowland sites around the volcano, but they are especially
4.4. Upper ENE slope and other slopes common in the alluvial plain of Puebla (>20 km to the NE of the crater)
which belongs to the Atoyac river drainage system (Fig. 1). There, the LP
On the eastern upper slopes, the LP fallout should reach its greatest and Pink pumice fallout deposits which primarily blanket the ENE slopes
thicknesses (>2 m), but its maximum value remains unknown because of Popocatépetl (but also the SE slopes of Iztaccíhuatl) disappear
the LP is poorly exposed. In this proximal area it is either partly eroded completely. Instead, thick lahar sequences (Po-97398, Po-95362) are
and/or covered by pumice-rich PDC deposits derived from Plinian col well-exposed in the Cholula and Huejotzingo areas (Fig. 2) and beyond
umn collapse. In addition, the Nealtican lavas, and several-m-thick de (Siebe et al., 1996), where they are being exploited for the manufacture
posits (P1, P2, and P3) of the younger Pink Plinian eruption form a thick of bricks (Seele and Siebe, 2012). In quarries, as well as along roadcuts
mantle. As a result, the LP is only observable in few ravines cutting deep in the areas of coalescing aprons at the mouths of ravines descending
enough to expose its upper part. from Iztaccíhuatl’s eastern slopes (Fig. 2), two sequences of lahar

Fig. 4. Stratigraphic correlation of deposits at different outcrops displaying the Lorenzo Plinian eruption sequence and overlying Nealtican lava flow field. A) W-
flank and Paso de Cortés area. B) NE-flank (Xalitzintla-San Nicolás-Tetimpa). C) NE-lowlands and lahar-plain areas (Tetimpa-Nealtican-Huejotzingo-Xochitécatl).
Location of outcrops is indicated in Fig. 2. PDC = pyroclastic density current.

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Fig. 4. (continued).

Fig. 4. (continued).
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C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Fig. 5. Composite stratigraphic section of the Lorenzo Plinian eruption sequence. Radiocarbon ages and localities where dated samples were collected are listed in
Table 4. Stratigraphic sections of outcrops where each of the radiocarbon samples was collected are provided in Appendix 1. PDC = pyroclastic density current.

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C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Fig. 6. Photos illustrating typical characteristics of the LP Plinian fallout. A. At this road-cut (10 km east of the crater, 3 km north of Atlimeyaya, medial facies,
Fig. 2) the LP overlies a paleosol (p) and consists mostly of angular pumice lapilli with a characteristic yellowish hue. The uppermost part of the LP deposit displays
some reworking and grades into a an incipient 5-to-10-cm-thick paleosol (ps) that is overlain by a distinctive 3-cm-thick sequence of laminated, cross-bedded, silty-
sandy dilute PDC layers (s, red arrow) that preceded the deposition of Pink pumice Plinian deposit layers P1 and P2. At this particular locality Pink pumice layer P3
(see text) is missing due to removal by erosion and the development of the actual soil (as). Shovel is 1-m-long. B. Close-up view of the LP in which dense lithic
andesite clasts (red arrows) stemming presumably from the conduit walls are discernible. Pen is 14 cm long. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

deposits separated by a paleosol can be observed. The lower sequence associated mm-thin fine silt layers at the top of flat flow units (Fig. 9A)
can be correlated stratigraphically to the LP and the upper sequence to are common. Clasts are mostly pumice and beds are light-brown in
the Pink Pumice eruptions, respectively. Both sequences are very similar colour and vary in the degree of induration from entirely friable to partly
in texture and composition and difficult to discern in many cases, cemented. When hardened (difficult to plow), they are called “tepetate”
especially when deposits of only one of the sequences are exposed in an by the local farmers. In many outcrops (e.g., near Zacatepec and the
outcrop. In some cases, the different colour hues of larger rounded Puebla airport, Fig. 9C) fragments of pottery and prismatic obsidian
pumice clasts (yellowish vs. pinkish) allow disambiguation, in others blades are frequent (Fig. 9B); in fewer cases collapsed adobe walls and
diagnostic ceramic artifacts (Preclassic vs. Classic) can be of help to organic materials (pieces of basketry) could also be observed,
distinguish the Lorenzo from the Pink eruption lahars. Each of the flow evidencing that the plains were inhabited prior to the LP and Pink Pli
units comprising these sequences characteristically exhibits massive nian eruptions and that human populations were directly affected far
internal structure (lack of internal stratification), very poor to extremely beyond the Tetimpa area (Fig. 9C, D).
poor sorting, dense packing (high consolidation), inverse to normal The deposits, as well as their geomorphological context bear strong
grading, and support of coarse clasts within a finer-grained matrix that similarities to those of the June 15, 1991 Mount Pinatubo Plinian
also contains charcoal fragments (Fig. 9). In the more distal areas toward eruption in the Philippines (Kevin Scott, pers. com.), where intense
the lowest parts of the Puebla basin, as well as at overbanks, these monsoon rains in the first rainy season following the cataclysmic erup
pumice-rich deposits are characterized by sand to fine gravel textures, tion generated hundreds of lahars in drainage basins surrounding the
poor sorting, horizontal bedding, and intrastratal occurrence of small volcano (Pierson et al., 1996). These lahars buried hundreds of square
gravel lenses or outsized gravel clasts, which all suggest rapid aggra kilometers of agricultural land, caused extensive damage to homes,
dational deposition from suspension or traction (Pierson and Scott, roads, and bridges in lowland areas surrounding the volcano, and dis
1985; Smith, 1986). Post-depositional dewatering structures and placed tens of thousands of people (e.g., Pierson et al., 1996; Rodolfo

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C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Fig. 7. Photos taken at quarries at the Nealtican lava flow front near Los Frailes (see Fig. 2) illustrating the stratigraphic relations between the Lorenzo Pumice
Plinian fallout, the Nealtican lava flow, and the Pink pumice Plinian fallout. A. Lorenzo pumice (LP) above paleosol (arrow) and directly underneath the basal breccia
of the Nealtican lava flow (N). Shovel is 1-m-long. B. Nealtican lava flow (N) overlain by the Pink Pumice Plinian fallout (arrow). Both deposits are separated by a
weathering surface and/or an incipient paleosol. Actual soil on top (as) is ~1.2 m thick. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader
is referred to the web version of this article.)

et al., 1996; Scott et al., 1996; Vallance and Iverson, 2015). Although we few (~7 wt%) at the base (C in Fig. 10) and systematically increase
did not map the lahar deposits around Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl in toward the top (~20 wt%), where they are most abundant (H in Fig. 10).
detail, our inspection of distal areas along the Atoyac River and else We interpret such a vertical distribution to reflect initial stable Plinian
where allows us to establish striking similarities to the case of Pinatubo column conditions that culminated with a waning stage in which
in terms of the origin and magnitude of the flows, and size of the conduit-walls increasingly collapsed. On the other hand, isolated juve
inundated areas, and to the general hydrologic response of a volcanic nile plagioclase, olivine, and pyroxene crystals occur pervasively in the
landscape following a Plinian eruption in a tropical or semitropical 1ø fraction throughout the deposit (Fig. 10). In contrast, the subse
climate. quently emplaced Nealtican lava flows contain abundant marble and
skarn xenoliths (Fig. 8) from deeper levels underneath the volcano, and
5. Componentry and grain-size distribution of the LP fallout might stem from the walls of a magma reservoir hosted in the Cretaceous
limestone formations.
The LP fallout was systematically sampled in stratigraphic sequence Samples A, C, F, H, and J (Fig. 10) were collected in stratigraphic
for componentry and grain-size analyses at locality PO-15040 (6.5 km order for sieve analyses. Grain-size distribution histograms (Fig. 10)
ENE from the crater, Fig. 2), where a 7-m-deep trench was dug on flat show that all samples are unimodal with a peak in the gravel-size frac
terrain between ravines in order to avoid incomplete fallout layers from tion. Grain size distributions, although slightly coarser at the base, are
erosion by PDCs and lahars. Results of grain-size analyses were plotted relatively uniform throughout the deposit. This is consistent with the
using the parameters proposed by Inman (1952) and histograms repre massive unstratified appearance of the LP deposit in the field and re
senting the results of the componentry analyses were constructed flects upon remarkably stable conditions during the Plinian phase of the
(Fig. 10). In comparison to other Plinian fallout deposits from Popo LP eruption.
catépetl (e.g., White pumice, Siebe et al., 2017; Tutti Frutti pumice, Sosa
et al., 2012), the LP stands out by its overall medium contents in acci 6. Mineralogical and chemical composition
dental lithics and absence of xenoliths from the deeper underlying
basement (e.g., Cretaceous limestone and contact-metamorphic skarn Popocatépetl rock compositions range from calc-alkaline andesitic to
clasts). We were able to identify three different types of lithic clasts, dacitic (e.g., Kolisnik, 1990; Schaaf et al., 2005; Arana-Salinas et al.,
labeled grey, red, and black in Fig. 10. They are all andesite fragments, 2010; Sosa-Ceballos et al., 2014; Mangler et al., 2019). In this study, we
which display different degrees of alteration and presumably stem from analyzed ten large several-cm-sized LP clasts sampled in stratigraphic
the upper magma conduit walls within the volcanic edifice. Lithics are order every 15–20 cm (A to J) from bottom to top at the trench exposing

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Fig. 8. Photos taken at abandoned quarries of the Nealtican lava flow front near San Pedro Atlixco (see Fig. 2) illustrating characteristics of contact-metamorphic
xenoliths: A. Large (~2 m) marble xenolith extracted from the lava by quarrying operations. Quarried lava flow front can be seen in the back. B. Close-up view of the
same marble xenolith showing joints and other voids intruded by the andesitic lava. C. Typical rounded skarn xenolith (~20 cm in diameter) in the process of
dissolution and assimilation in the lava. Whitish-yellowish-green hue derives from Ca-Mg-silicates (e.g., wollastonite, diopside, garnet) and mm-sized voids are likely
the result of decarbonation reactions. D. Angular dense 25-cm-long meta-siltstone xenolith. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the
reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

the LP with a total thickness of 190 cm (locality Po-15040, Figs. 2 and the White Pumice (Siebe et al., 2017), it is absent in products from many
10). Results of modal mineralogical and whole-rock chemical (major other Popocatépetl eruptions. In the LP, hornblende is extremely rare
and trace elements) analyses are listed in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. and was only identified in one sample (PO40-LP-G, Table 2, Fig. 11F).
Major element oxide data were normalized on an anhydrous basis The same applies to the Nealtican lavas, where trace amounts of horn
(Appendix 3). Furthermore, a total of 32 samples from the different blende crystals with opacite reaction rims together with “hornblende
flows (1 to 4) of the Nealtican lava field were reported previously by ghosts” completely recrystallized with plagioclase, pyroxene, and opa
Ramírez-Uribe et al. (2022) and are also discussed for comparison here. que oxides were only found in the dacitic lava flow (unit F4) that erupted
In general, observed mineral assemblages in the LP are similar to at the end of the eruption (Ramírez-Uribe et al., 2022). The groundmass
those reported by Ramírez-Uribe et al. (2022). LP clasts and Nealtican in the lavas is less glassy and includes abundant feldspar microlites.
lava samples are porphyritic and display a seriate texture. Crystal con Phenocrysts in the LP do not show resorption features but are frequently
tents (including phenocrystals and micro-phenocrystals) in the LP range broken (Fig. 11C). In contrast, phenocrysts in the lavas (e.g., plagio
between 25 and 40 Vol% and are higher in the lavas (Table 2). Pheno clase) are often corroded and rounded or display sieve-textures.
crysts in the LP include plagioclase (Plg) > hypersthene (Opx) > augite Pumices are highly vesicular (>40 Vol%, from cm to μm in diameter)
(Cpx) > > olivine (Ol) > > hornblende (Hbl) that are embedded in a and vesicles have tubular interconnections. They are mostly elongated,
rhyolitic glass (Fig. 11). Oxides (Ox, mostly Ti-magnetite and ilmenite) but spherical shapes also occur. Occasional flow-banded pumice clasts
and apatite (Ap) occur as accessories (Table 2 and Fig. 11). are encountered whose banding is largely due to differences in vesicu
Forsteritic olivine (Ol) has been observed occasionally in multiple larity and crystal content. The LP clasts collected in stratigraphic
Popocatépetl products, including lavas (Mangler et al., 2020) and sequence (Fig. 10) show only small chemical variations from level A
pumice clasts from the Tutti Frutti (Sosa-Ceballos et al., 2012) and Ochre (bottom) toward J (near top). Pumice clast compositions range from
Pumice (Arana-Salinas et al., 2010) Plinian eruptions, and also occurs in 60.8 to 63.6 wt% SiO2 and are usually slightly hydrated with loss on
traces in the LP (Fig. 11E). Although hornblende is a ubiquitous phase in ignition (LOI) values that range between 0.6 and 1.2 wt% (Table 3). On

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Fig. 9. Representative outcrops of Lorenzo eruption lahar deposits in the plains of Puebla. A. Locality Po-97398 dated at 2115 ± 165 y. BP near Zacatepec showing
massive layers separated by a mm-thin fine silt layer (red arrow). B. Close-up view of previous outcrop showing subrounded andesite-cobble (ac) and pottery
fragment (p) embedded in a coarse-sandy to silty pumiceous matrix. Pen is 14 cm long. C. Lahar sequence (Po-95364) dated in this study (see Fig. 4c) containing
abundant archaeological material (e.g., adobe bricks) at the W base of Cerro Xochitécatl. D. Lahar terrace (Lt) covering the base of the Totimehuacan pyramid (Tp),
located at the southern outskirts of the city of Puebla (Fig. 1). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)

an anhydrous basis the SiO2 in the pumices ranges quite narrowly at the Sosa-Ceballos et al., 2012; Mangler et al., 2019; Macías et al., 2020;
limit between andesites and dacites and increases upward from 62.1 to Tommasini et al., 2022), and are also common in LP samples (e.g.,
63.5 wt% while the total alkalis (Na2O + K2O) decrease from 5.8 to 5.4 plagioclases with sieved textures or patchy cores, Fig. 11B). In a recent
wt% (Appendix 3, Fig. 12). Nealtican lava samples have much lower LOI petrological study, Sosa-Ceballos et al. (2014) tried to understand mix
values (0 to 0.5 wt%) and their SiO2 contents cover a wider span ing processes at Popocatépetl by analyzing pumices from diverse Plinian
(Fig. 12) than in the pumices ranging between 60.8 and 64.6 wt% eruptions. Their results show that over the last 23,500 years, magmas
(Ramírez-Uribe et al., 2022). The total alkalis in the lavas (anhydrous) erupted in Plinian style were variably modified by replenishment of
are slightly higher (5.8–6.2 wt%) than in the pumices and display a flat mafic (olivine-bearing) magma at one of two silicic reservoirs, located at
trend. different depths: one of the evolved reservoirs is located deeper than
According to the TAS diagram (Fig. 12) LP samples are slightly less 200 MPa (>7–8 km) and bears hornblende, and the other is between 110
evolved in comparison to other young Popocatépetl pumice layers (e.g., and 130 MPa (~4–5 km) and is hornblende-free.
White pumice, Siebe et al., 2017), but in general they are similar to other Since olivine is present in the LP, and other minerals show reaction
Popocatépetl products as shown in rare earth element (REE) diagrams rims as well as internal disequilibrium textures, the magma from which
(normalized to chondritic values from McDonough and Sun, 1995), the pumice formed did undergo a recent mafic mixing event prior to its
which show an enrichment in the light REE [(La/Yb)N > 8], with a sub- eruption. In addition, hornblende phenocrysts are mostly absent or
horizontal heavy REE pattern and a very slight negative Eu anomaly broken down in thin sections of LP products, which points toward the
(Fig. 13a). Trace element distribution plots (normalized to N-MORB tapping of the shallower pre-existing more degassed reservoir. Pre
values from Sun and McDonough, 1989) (Fig. 13b) are also similar and sumably, this reservoir was first cut by the ascending olivine bearing and
characterized by a greater enrichment in the most incompatible ele gas-rich LP magma (Plinian phase) and later incorporated into the
ments (Cs to K) and Zr, negative anomalies in Nb and Ta, and a positive eruption after some mixing (effusive phase). The abundance of car
anomaly in Pb. bonate and skarn xenoliths in the Nealtican lavas (also frequent in the
Mineral disequilibrium textures and chemical data pointing toward Tutti Frutti eruption, Sosa-Ceballos et al., 2012) also indicates that
magma mixing processes have been amply reported in Popocatépetl magmas from the shallower reservoir, hosted in the calcareous base
products (e.g., Kolisnik, 1990; Athanasopoulos, 1997; Straub and ment, were important contributors to the effusive phase of the LP
Martin-Del Pozzo, 2001; Schaaf et al., 2005; Arana-Salinas et al., 2010; eruption (Ramírez-Uribe et al., 2022).

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Fig. 10. Stratigraphic position (A to J) at locality PO-15040 (6.5 km ENE from crater, Fig. 2), frequency histograms of grain-size distributions, and componentry of
pumice and lithic clasts (for the 0φ and 1φ grain-size populations) for the LP sequence. Abundance of the different types of clasts is given in wt%. Lorenzo Plinian
Pumice fallout (L) and Pink I Plinian Pumice fallout (P1). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version
of this article.)

7. Physical parameters of the Plinian phase of the eruption an average density of 800 kg/m3 for the pumice deposit (the amount of
lithics usually ranges between 2% and 20%, hence was not considered),
The isopach and isopleth maps of the LP deposit (Fig. 14) were this would correspond to ~0.2 km3 DRE (Table 1), a rather conservative
constructed from measurements at ~160 outcrops (see Appendix 4). The estimate that does not include the volume of PDC deposits. This volume
exact location of the vent that produced the LP deposits cannot be corresponds to a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 4 (Newhall and Self,
identified from these maps (data from proximal outcrops is scarce), but 1982) and is similar to the one determined for the Ochre Pumice but one
it seems that the Plinian phase of the eruption was centered within the order of magnitude less than those estimated for the Tutti Frutti and
presently existing summit crater. The main dispersal axis of the LP White Pumice deposits from Popocatépetl (Table 1).
eruption was toward the ENE. The column height (Ht) was estimated following the method outlined
The area enclosed by each isopach (10 cm = 600 km2; 50 cm = 220 by Carey and Sparks (1986). The isopleth map for lithic clasts (Fig. 14b)
km ; 100 cm = 130 km2; 200 cm = 44 km2; see also Appendix 2) was
2
was used for obtaining downwind and crosswind range parameters,
calculated by using the QGIS 3.18 software tool. The proximal tephra which were then plotted in Fig. 15a (after Fig. 16a in Carey and Sparks,
volume of ~0.4 km3 (Table 1, Appendix 2) was calculated with the 1986). Accordingly, the eruption column height was ~28 km, while the
method proposed by Pyle (1989, 1995) and Fierstein and Nathenson buoyancy height (Hb) reached ~20 km (Fig. 15b, after Fig. 7d in Carey
(1992) based on the exponential reduction of the deposit thickness and and Sparks, 1986).
the distal volume with the method of Sulpizio (2005). Accordingly, the
total volume of the LP fallout tephra was estimated at ~0.6 km3 (see 8. Radiocarbon ages
Table 1). Density measurements of the deposit (pumice + lithic clasts +
interstitial void space) and of single pumice clasts was not undertaken, As mentioned above (see section previous work), Seele (1973a) was
but assuming a reasonable andesite magma density of 2500 kg/m3 and the first to document the occurrence of Preclassic pottery fragments as

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Fig. 11. Photomicrographs under the petrographic microscope of Lorenzo Pumice samples (for the exception of A and F, all photos under cross-polarised light). A.
Typical pumice sample (PO40-LP-A) showing high vesicularity (Vs) and phenocrysts of hypersthene (Opx) with greenish pleochroism and plagioclase (Plg). B.
Idiomorphic plagioclase (Plg) with internal sieve-texture and zoned rim (PO40-LP-C). C. Fractured hypersthene (Opx) with attached smaller plagioclase (Plg) crystals
(PO40-LP-F). D. Idiomorphic augite (Cpx) crystals. Note typical simple twin in basal section (PO40-LP-G). E. Olivine (Ol) crystal with plagioclase (Plg) and hy
persthene (Opx) reaction rim and oxide (Ox) inclusions (PO40-LP-D). F. Rare idiomorphic hornblende (Hbl) microcrystals in vesicular glassy matrix (PO40-LP-G).

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C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

2005, 2006; Seele, 1973b). In addition, we included in our graph

(Fig. 16) results from Preclassic archaeological contexts (e.g., Cholula,
Mountjoy and Peterson, 1973; Moyotzingo, Aufdermauer, 1970, 1973;
Totimehuacan, Spranz, 1996; San Francisco Acatepec, Walter, 1970)
located within the area inundated by lahars. The overlapping area
(Fig. 16) is the most probable cal BCE age, which in this case is ~40 cal
BCE.
Ideally, datable material should stem from young organisms that
ceased to be alive at the moment of the eruption. Unfortunately, char
coal fragments directly produced by the eruption from young vegetation
were not found within the LP fallout layers. Many samples stem from
bracketing paleosols and associated archaeological contexts, hence are
stratigraphically either somewhat older or younger than the eruption
(Figs. 4 and 5, Appendix 1). Other fragments of charcoal were obtained
from overlying PDC and lahar deposits. In most of the latter cases, it
could not be ascertained whether the fragments would stem from young
twigs or from older trees with dead wood tissue. This is important
because the inbuilt age in several of the samples could be derived from
long-lived tree species. Hence, although the radiocarbon data set is
overall quite consistent, it is not further surprising that age variations
are found within it. In addition, some of these variations are probably
related to post-depositional contamination caused by the infiltration of
groundwater carrying organic compounds to the underlying volcanic
deposits (e.g., the centuries-long use of manure in the corn fields and
Fig. 12. Lorenzo pumice rock-sample compositions plotted in a Total Alkali vs. fruit orchards of the Tetimpa and Nealtican areas could represent a
Silica (TAS) diagram (analyses recalculated to 100% on a H2O-free basis, see serious problem for obtaining reliable dates).
Appendix 3) after Le Bas et al. (1986). Other previously published analyses The best samples from a purely stratigraphic point of view were
(Arana et al., 2010; Sosa-Ceballos et al., 2012; Siebe et al., 2017; Ramírez-Uribe found almost in direct contact with the LP and the underlying paleosol in
et al., 2022) are shown for comparison. TFPE = Tutti Frutti Plinian Eruption. archaeological contexts in the Tetimpa area. One of them is a charred
twig from a hut that collapsed under the weight of the LP fallout (site
well as agricultural furrows underneath the LP deposit in the Nealtican 95195, this study) and the other is a carbonized corn cob found inside a
and Tetimpa areas. He also undertook radiocarbon dating, but results sealed jar by Plunket and Uruñuela (2006). The first (A-8557, Table 4)
(Seele, 1973b) yielded mostly younger ages pertaining to the Classic yielded an age of 2090 ± 95 yr B.P. (conventional method, 2σ calibrated
period (see Fig. 16 and Table 4). Because of this unresolvable discrep age range of 372 BCE-88 CE, 92–120 CE) and the second (Beta-146,572,
ancy his results were not published and are reported here for the first Table 4) gave an age of 2010 ± 40 yr B.P. (AMS, 2σ calibrated age range
time (see Fig. 16 and Table 4). In retrospect, it seems that the dated of 102–66 BCE, 60 BCE–121 CE). If considering only these two dates, the
samples were collected from a site contaminated by fluids seeping un eruption could have occurred with similar probability in the first cen
derground from a manure-storage pit at an adjacent barn (Seele, per tury BCE. If we consider the entire data set, the balance inclines toward
sonal comm.). Stratigraphic relations and archaeological remains the first century BCE, without discarding the first century CE, as the most
indicate the LP eruption occurred ~2000 years B.P. near the limit be probable date of the LP eruption.
tween the Preclassic and Classic periods. Siebe et al. (1996) and Panfil
et al. (1999) basically confirmed this assumption by radiocarbon dating 9. Paleomagnetic dating of the Nealtican lava flows
the deposit at ~2150 14C yr B.P. (cal 350–50 BCE). Plunket and Uru
ñuela (2006) provided radiocarbon dates from charred materials under 9.1. Paleomagnetic methods
the LP, concluding a radiocarbon date of 2010 ± 40 yr B.P. from a
carbonized corn cob sealed inside a jar best dated the eruption. If cor In this work, no sampling or measurements for obtaining paleo
rect, this would shift the timing of the eruption to a younger date in the magnetic directions were carried out, and the reader is referred to
first century CE than previously proposed by Siebe et al. (1996) and Mahgoub et al. (2019) for such details. Here we report new rock-
Panfil et al. (1999). magnetic properties obtained from four sites (POP-2, POP-3, POP-4,
In this work twenty radiocarbon ages (Table 4) obtained on either and TET; Table 5, Fig. 2): hysteresis loops were obtained by a Micromag
charcoal or wood fragments found within different pyroclastic deposits 2900 vibrating sample magnetometer and thermomagnetic curves by a
and on paleosols associated with the LP and overlying Nealtican lava horizontal magnetic balance designed in our laboratory. This used a
flows are presented for the first time. Most samples were analyzed by the field of 500 mT with a temperature increase/decrease of about 30 ◦ C/
conventional method at the Laboratory of Isotope Geochemistry, Uni min up to 700 ◦ C, in air atmosphere. Hysteresis data were analyzed with
versity of Arizona, Tucson. Three additional samples (all collected at HystLab software (Paterson et al., 2018). Paleointensity (PI) experi
locality PO-14001 near Tecuanipan) were dated by the Accelerator Mass ments were carried out in an ASC Scientific TD48SC oven and samples
Spectrometry (AMS) method by Beta Analytic in Miami (Florida). By were measured with an AGICO JR6 magnetometer. PI data were
applying the Stuiver et al. (2021) procedure and with the help of the analyzed with the ThellierTool4.0 (Leonhardt et al., 2004).
CALIB computer program (version 8.2) the dates were calibrated to
calendar years (Table 4). The chronology of the eruption was established 9.2. Magnetic properties
based on the detailed stratigraphy and the radiocarbon data (Figs. 4, 5,
Table 4, Appendix 1) and the best age was obtained by graphically From each site (see location in Fig. 2), four samples were selected for
comparing all statistically determined calibrated age ranges (2σ). For magnetic property studies. Examples of hysteresis loops before and after
this purpose, we did not only plot results from the studied volcanic correction for paramagnetic contributions are shown in Fig. 17. We note
contexts (this study; Siebe et al., 1996; Panfil et al., 1999) but also those that this paramagnetic contribution is large, accounting for about one
from the archaeological site of Tetimpa (Plunket and Uruñuela, 1998, third of the magnetization at the maximum field of 1 T and interpret this

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Fig. 13. A) Chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) plot (after McDonough and Sun, 1995) and B) N-MORB trace element patterns (after Sun and McDo
nough, 1989) for Lorenzo pumice samples. Other pumice samples (Arana et al., 2010; Siebe et al., 2017) and Nealtican lavas (Ramírez-Uribe et al., 2022) from
Popocatépetl are plotted for comparison.

to reflect the high concentration of Fe–Ti oxides which are para Ti-content and the other a low-Ti titanomagnetite, which often domi
magnetic. Loops close between 400 and 500 mT and saturate between nates. Hysteresis and thermomagnetic experiments thus suggest the
700 and 900 mT. Coercive forces are high, between 10.1 and 53.4 mT presence of high-stability titanomagnetite minerals which are reliable
(33.6 ± 13.4 mT in average). Saturation magnetization ratios Mrs/Ms recorders of the paleomagnetic field.
vary between 0.24 and 0.36 (0.29 ± 0.07 in average). Such values are
typical for small pseudo-single-domain (or vortex-type) particles of high
magnetic stability. 9.3. Paleomagnetic directions
Thermomagnetic curves (Fig. 17) often show a slight change of slope
around 250–350 ◦ C and Curie temperatures between 540 and 570 ◦ C, So far, Nealtican lava flow samples have been studied from five sites
both for the heating and cooling branches (e.g., POP-2-8, POP-3-2), (Fig. 2): TET (Böhnel and Molina-Garza, 2002), POP-2, POP-3, and POP-
others (e.g., POP-4-2) only one Curie temperature around 560–580 ◦ C. 4 (Mahgoub et al., 2019), and PO-3 (Pérez-Rodríguez et al., 2019). Site-
In these, during cooling, the low-temperature component often appears mean directions and paleointensities are listed in Table 5 and graphi
with a Curie temperature around 300 ◦ C, probably due to exsolution cally represented in Fig. 18. Note that Mahgoub et al. (2019) reported an
processes provoked at high temperatures. These thermomagnetic curves overall mean direction based on all specimens from sites POP-2, POP-3,
therefore suggest the presence of two magnetic minerals in most Neal and POP-4, but here we show data from these three sites individually.
tican samples, one being probably a titanomagnetite with intermediate After reanalyzing these data, we decided to rather calculate an overall
mean direction from sites TET, POP-2, and POP-4. These sites show very

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C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Fig. 14. Isopach (A) and isopleth (B) maps (in cm) of the LP fallout. Yellow dots indicate locations where bed-thickness and maximum lithic diameter (black numbers
in cm) were measured (for a full list see Appendix 4). Area covered by the Nealtican lava flow field is shown for reference. (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Fig. 15. A) Column height (downwind vs. crosswind range plot) after Carey and Sparks (1986) for the 1-cm-lithic isopleth. Lorenzo pumice data obtained from
isopleths in Fig. 14b and data for other eruptions from the literature (Arana et al., 2010; Sosa-Ceballos et al., 2012; Siebe et al., 2017). B) Isopleth area vs. maximum
lithic size (2500 kg/m3) for different eruption column heights (after Carey and Sparks, 1986). Values along curves correspond to Hb (buoyancy height) and Ht
(maximum column height, in parentheses) in km.

similar mean directions, while POP-3 and PO-3 are clearly different success rate of 22%. Many of the other samples provided similar PI
(Fig. 18, Table 5) and were probably affected by post-cooling move values, but were rejected as they violated one or several reliability
ments of these rocks. Such movements are common in blocky lava flows, criteria. All acceptable PI results are listed in Appendix 5 (Table S1). PI
and hence it is recommendable to sample several sites and only use data results from the two sample batches did not differ significantly, but the
which are in mutual agreement. The mean direction obtained by this success rate of the second batch was slightly higher. For calculating an
procedure represents our best estimate for the Nealtican lava flow field average PI, we used all data reported by Mahgoub et al. (2019) (plus two
and will be used from here on: Dec = 355.6◦ E, Inc. = 37.1◦ , α95 = 1.7◦ , n PI data not reported previously), data published by Pérez-Rodríguez
= 27. It is graphically shown in Fig. 18 together with the individual site- et al. (2019), and those obtained in this work. PI values vary between
mean directions. 44.4 and 84.8 μT (n = 20) and cluster around 60 μT. After eliminating
minimum and maximum PI values we obtained an average of 63.3 ± 5.8
9.4. Paleointensity results μT (n = 18).

PI data were reported by Mahgoub et al. (2019) and Pérez-Rodríguez 9.5. Paleomagnetic dating
et al. (2019): 76.8 ± 4.2 μT (n = 2) and 60.3 ± 2.6 μT (n = 7), respec
tively. Because of the comparably small number of specimens (n = 2) For paleomagnetic dating, the global model [Link].14 k (Pavón-
and the rather high mean PI obtained by Mahgoub et al. (2019), we Carrasco et al., 2014) was used to generate secular variation curves for
extended this work with back-up specimens. Two batches of specimens the sampling region (latitude 19.00◦ N, longitude 98.45◦ W), and the
were selected (total number of 41). In the first batch, 19 specimens were MATLAB tool “archaeo_dating” (Pavón-Carrasco et al., 2011) then de
oriented semi-parallel to the oven field, and in the second semi- termines possible age intervals with the mean direction and paleo
antiparallel. Temperature steps for the second batch were adjusted ac intensity as input data. For this purpose, we selected a time interval of
cording to the results obtained from the first batch, and we also decided [500 BCE to 1000 CE], in part as suggested by the available C-14 age
to use for this the Thellier-Coe method (Coe, 1967) instead of the data (Table 4), but deliberately extending it to younger ages. The
Thellier-IZZY method (Tauxe and Staudigel, 2004) used for the first graphical result of the paleomagnetic dating is shown in Fig. 20 with
batch. This allowed to increase the number of pTRM checks required to only one possible time interval [70 BCE – 10 BCE] (values were rounded
detect thermochemical alterations. PI experiments were challenging to full decades). This well-restricted age range is much older than that
because unblocking temperatures varied considerably even within a reported by Pérez-Rodríguez et al. (2019). Their age of 1040–1140 CE
particular site, from temperatures <400 ◦ C to >500 ◦ C. Such variations may have been affected by an unreliable mean direction (tilted lava
may be related to the presence of titanomagnetite minerals with strongly block) and additionally by choosing a too young permissible age interval
differing Ti-contents and thus differing Curie and unblocking of 0–1900 CE used for their paleomagnetic dating.
temperatures. Our paleomagnetic dating result is not only in agreement with the
Two typical examples of PI or Arai plots of acceptable quality (Class obtained most probable radiocarbon age range for the timing of the
A or B, Leonhardt et al., 2004) are shown in Fig. 19. These reflect the eruption (~40 cal BCE), but also underscores the validity of our field
differing unblocking temperatures mentioned above, where sample observations in regard to the Nealtican lava field, which can hence be
POP-2-2Z best-fit corresponds to 0–540 ◦ C, while POP-4-6Z to 440–570 envisaged as the degassed portion of the magma that was erupted
◦
C. Of the 41 studied samples, only 9 fulfilled Class A or B criteria, a effusively without much delay after the explosive Plinian phase that

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C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Fig. 16. Graph showing calibrated radiocarbon ages for the 2-sigma range of Popocatépetl’s LP Plinian eruption and associated Preclassic/Classic boundary
archaeological contexts from the eastern lower slopes of Popocatépetl and adjacent lahar plains. Grey band shows the best overlap for most existing ages and is
centered at 40 cal BCE. Vertical scale shows laboratory sample identification numbers as reported in different publications.

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C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Fig. 17. Hysteresis loops (left, a to c) and thermomagnetic curves (right, e to f) for three selected Nealtican lava samples. Black/red are raw/corrected loops
(corrected for paramagnetic contributions). Red/blue curves are heating/cooling branches of thermomagnetic curves. (For interpretation of the references to colour
in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

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C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Fig. 18. Paleomagnetic site-mean directions for Nealtican lava flows with α95
confidence circles. TET (Böhnel and Molina-Garza, 2002), POP-2, POP-3, and
POP-4 (Mahgoub et al., 2019), and PO-3 (Pérez-Rodríguez et al., 2019). POP-2-
4-TET is the mean direction of samples from sites POP-2, POP-4, and TET. Note
divergent directions of PO-3 and POP-3, probably produced by post-cooling
movements of these rocks.

deposited the LP.

10. Discussion

10.1. Course of the eruption, impact, and regional consequences

From direct observations of the archaeological contexts in the

Tetimpa, Nealtican, Tianguismanalco, and San Pedro Atlixco areas
(Fig. 2), Seele (1973 a, b) concluded that the Plinian eruption had taken
place after corn harvest since agricultural fields were not planted.
Harvest in central Mexico usually occurs during the period between
September and December, after the rainy season. Furthermore, archae
ological excavations in Tetimpa by Plunket and Uruñuela (2006) found
little corn in the domestic storage facilities (locally called cuexcomates)
of households. This would imply that food supplies had been either
removed before the impending eruption, or were already depleted to
ward the later part of the dry season (March–April). A timing in early
spring for the eruption is also supported by the ENE dispersal axis of the
Plinian fallout (Fig. 14), since prevailing winds above Popocatépetl’s
crater generally blow from west to east during the dry season and with
greater intensity at this time of the year (e.g., Bonasia et al., 2014; Fig. 19. Examples of Arai plots for samples from sites POP-2, POP-3, POP-4 of
Jiménez-Escalona et al., 2022). Nealtican lava flow, with category of Class A, A, and C, respectively. Round
In regard to premonitory phenomena preceding the climactic phase symbols correspond to NRM vs. pTRM data, triangles to pTRM-alteration checks
of the eruption not much could be deduced from the volcanic deposits. from high to low temperature.
Results from the excavations at Tetimpa (e.g., Uruñuela and Plunket,
2003) indicate that the abandonment of the dispersed village was first
gradual and only abrupt toward the end of the occupation since some
valuable household artifacts had been removed and only indispensable
items necessary for the operation of kitchens and adoratories were found

31
C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

in place. Human remains pointing toward casualties from the eruption

have not been reported so far, neither at Tetimpa nor elsewhere. Hence,
some sort of unusual activity might have taken place at the crater
warning the people in Tetimpa and other nearby areas.
The onset of the eruption was probably heard over great distances (in
wind direction probably tens of km) and from Tetimpa, the rise of the
Plinian column must have been a frightening sight. Such columns rise
with a great velocity of 400–600 m/s at the vent, before convective and
buoyant forces set in and velocities decrease substantially to ~100 m/s
(Wilson, 1976). In the LP case, once the rising mass reached its neutral
buoyancy level at ~28 km, horizontal expansion started with a strong
deviation and dispersion toward the ENE due to the prevailing wind. At
Tetimpa, subsequent fallout and initial deposition of pumice and ash
Fig. 20. Paleomagnetic dating of Nealtican lava flows. The blue peak is a would have started not later than several tens of minutes after the initial
combined probability density curve from magnetic declination, inclination, and
explosion. Pumice fallout from a sustained column was continuous at
paleointensity, and define ages at the 95% probability level shown as a green
Tetimpa and may have lasted for several hours until a sudden drop in the
line. The age interval chosen for the dating is − 500 BCE to 1000 CE. The
complete paleomagnetic dating figure is included in the Appendix 5. (For
magmatic supply system led to column collapse and the emplacement of
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is lethal PDCs that became channelized along ravines draining the vol
referred to the web version of this article.) cano. The dense part of these PDCs with temperatures high enough to
produce abundant charcoal (500 to 700 ◦ C), did not reach much further
than the break in slope (12 km), although the less-hot (100–200 ◦ C)

Fig. 21. Satellite image (Microsoft® Bing Maps, 2019) and post-Plinian lahar scenario (modified from the Popocatépetl volcano hazard map, see Hazard Map Work
Group, 2016) showing areas probably inundated after Popocatépetl’s LP Plinian phase by recurrent rain-lahars. Flooded areas (yellow) were determined following
procedures outlined in Caballero and Capra (2014) by performing numerical simulations with the computer program FLO2D (O’Brien et al., 1993). For input pa
rameters and topographic base see Martin del Pozzo et al. (2017). LP ash-fallout (10-cm-isopach) and Nealtican lava-flow field are also shown. Preclassic settlements
and possible eruption-induced migration routes are also indicated. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the
web version of this article.)

32
C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Fig. 22. Graph showing general Mesoamerican time scale and chronological estimates for human occupation time periods of the Basin of Mexico and Teotihuacan
(Cowgill, 2015), Cholula (Plunket and Uruñuela, 2018), and Cantona (García-Cook, 2009), and dated eruptions from volcanoes at the southern margin of the Basin of
Mexico (Sierra Chichinautzin volcanic field and Popocatépetl) and the Basin of Serdán-Oriental (Las Derrumbadas) that occurred near the Terminal Preclassic/Early
Classic boundary. References for volcano eruption radiocarbon dates: Jumento (Arce et al., 2015), Tefra Negra from Xicomulco-Tzompoli (Álvarez-García et al.,
2019), Chichinautzin (Siebe et al., 2004), Xitle (Siebe, 2000), Las Derrumbadas (Chedeville et al., 2020), Popocatépetl (this study). Earliest constructional phase of
the Great Pyramid of Cholula (Plunket and Uruñuela, 2005).

33
C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

dilute overriding PDCs reached several km beyond that limit. By that fertile lands, but also those that could be irrigated with the aid of canals
time, most people within reach of the PDCs could have fled far enough to and other waterworks from adjacent streams. Known Preclassic sites
save their lives. As a result of the pumice fallout and PDCs, the forest was within or near the areas affected by lahars include Tlalancaleca (Mur
largely destroyed and a scalding-hot pumiceous desert characterized the akami et al., 2017), Totimehuacan and Xochitécatl (Spranz, 1996),
landscape. Maximum dense-lithic clasts found in the LP at Tetimpa are Acatepec (Walter, 1970), Moyotzingo (Aufdermauer, 1970), and Ama
typically 2–3 cm in size, large enough to produce significant injuries and lucan (Fowler, 1969) in the upper Atoyac drainage area, and Colotzingo
even death upon impact. In the area of Cholula (~30 km from the crater, (Uruñuela, 1989) in the Nexapa (Atlixco) valley, and Chalcatzingo
along the dispersal axis), pumice and lithic clasts were much smaller, but (Grove et al., 1976) in the Amatzinac valley (Fig. 21), to only name a few
the thickness of the ash-fallout attained at least ten centimeters (Fig. 10). sites for which also radiocarbon chronometry has been reported (see
Shortly after, when the first strong rains occurred on Popocatépetl’s also Table 4).
and Iztaccíhuatl’s slopes, voluminous lahars started rushing down the As in the case of other known disasters caused by Plinian eruptions
ravines from both volcanoes gradually inundating the surrounding such as Vesuvius in southern Italy in 79 CE (Sigurdsson et al., 1985) and
valleys and plains. These lahars would engulf entire towns together with Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991 CE (Newhall and Punongbayan,
their agricultural plots and irrigation infrastructure. Survival would 1996), we presume that the largest portion of the population survived
have been possible by fleeing to higher ground. Flooding must have been the eruption but fugitives found themselves without shelter and food
most intense during the first rainy season after the eruption and became due to crop-failure. As a result, they were forced to migrate and seek for
more sporadic during subsequent years until the hydraulic network had help in adjacent areas, such as Cuicuilco and Teotihuacan in the Basin of
become reestablished and the slopes stabilized. The total area probably Mexico, Cantona in the Basin of Serdán-Oriental, and sites within the
affected by lahars (Fig. 21) was estimated by us at ~1900 km2, while the Valley of Tehuacán and beyond (see possible migration paths in Fig. 22).
area affected by heavy pumice fallout and PDCs was much smaller Several years had to elapse, before the affected areas would regain their
(~600 km2). fertility (as explained above) and could be repopulated again success
Around the same time of the initial lahar flooding, the El Ombligo fully by agriculturalists.
eruptive vent opened at ~4000 m asl and produced the Nealtican lava
flow field. This effusive activity took ~35 years and covered an area of 10.2. Importance of the exact timing of the eruption (future research)
~70 km2 with four main lava flows (Ramírez-Uribe et al., 2022). Since
the area affected by the lava flows had been previously devastated by Given the impact of the eruption on Prehispanic populations, a more
heavy pumice fallout and PDCs, their emplacement did not cause further precise knowledge of the date of the eruption is highly desirable. In
direct destruction of vegetation and settlements. Nonetheless, their order to overcome the limitations inherent to the radiocarbon and
hardness has rendered them useless for agricultural purposes until this paleomagnetic methods for determining the exact timing of the LP
day. eruption, it is today possible to recur to other independent methods such
Fresh volcanic deposits lack nitrogen compounds (ammonia, ni as dendrochronology and the identification of sulfur-spikes and crypto-
trates, etc.) that are vital for plant growth. Such compounds are syn tephra of known age and provenance in polar ice-core records.
thetized and fixed in the soil from atmospheric gas nitrogen by Dendrochronological studies at volcanoes of the TMVB, including
specialized bacteria living at plant roots. For this reason, such deposits Paricutin (Carlón-Allende et al., 2022), Colima (Biondi et al., 2003), and
remain sterile until ruderal plants (species that do not require much Popocatépetl (Bollschweiler et al., 2010) have shown that tree growth
nitrogen) together with nitrogen-fixing bacteria start colonizing them (e. can be suppressed by ash fallout from eruptive columns, as well as from
g., Shoji et al., 1994). After some years (length of time depending on lahars. Hence, tree-ring chronologies of Mexican conifer species are
climate conditions) a certain threshold is reached and the vegetation useful paleoenvironmental archives that can also register volcanic
returns in a seemingly abrupt fashion. Only then, affected areas can be eruptions. Unfortunately, most tree specimens found so far in the forests
fully used for agriculture again and, quite paradoxically, become of Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl are hardly older than 300 years
particularly fertile with time (Shoji and Takahashi, 2002). (Bollschweiler et al., 2010) which, given the Terminal Preclassic age of
Having the above in mind, the impact of the eruption on agriculture the LP eruption, is an obvious impediment. In contrast, sulfur-spike ar
was mainly twofold: disastrous in the short term and positive (renewal chives from polar ice-cores (e.g., Zielinski et al., 1994) represent a more
of soil improving the agricultural yield) in the long term. After having promising alternative. In recent years, several prominent sulfur-spikes
established the size of the impacted area (~2400 km2), the main ques were successfully matched with major eruptions (especially in the
tion that begs for an answer is an estimate of the number of people that northern hemisphere) by geochemically fingerprinting crypto-tephra
inhabited this surface at the time of the eruption during the Terminal embedded in Greenland’s ice-strata and confirming its source (e.g.,
Preclassic. So far, archaeological evidence for direct casualties is lack McConnell et al., 2020; Abbott et al., 2021). In a recent study, chemical
ing, but given the magnitude of the eruption, even in the best of the cases analyses of Popocatépetl’s LP tephra were compared with crypto-tephra
(most people were warned by premonitory phenomena and fled), a obtained from ice-core strata from Greenland dated at 88 CE (Plunkett
certain amount of people probably perished. et al., 2022) without a positive correlation. That study included com
Popocatépetl at the southern margin of the Mexican Altiplano was puter simulations of ash distribution with the software Ash3d
located at the core of Mesoamerican culture in central Mexico and the LP (Schwaiger et al., 2012) using parameters for a Plinian scenario at
eruption occurred at a time when most of the population was still living Popocatépetl that demonstrated the potential reach of ejecta from large
in dispersed tribal villages next to sufficient water sources. First urban Mexican eruptions at Greenland’s coring sites. The latter, together with
centers (e.g., Cuicuilco in the southern and Teotihuacan in the northern the occurrence of several hitherto unmatched sulfur-spikes (e.g., Sigl
Mexico basin, respectively) had just started to nucleate and emerge (e.g., et al., 2015) for the period 100–0 BCE (in our opinion the most probable
Cowgill, 2015). time-span for the occurrence of the LP) in the Greenland ice-core ar
Sanders et al. (1979) estimated that by 100 BCE the population in the chives, nourishes our hope, that the LP eruption might become even
entire basin of Mexico might have reached ~130,000, while García- tually dated with greater precision by this means.
Cook (2014) estimated 180,000 for the area of the northern Puebla and
Tlaxcala region (upper Atoyac drainage) and ~ 80,000 in the Cholula 10.3. Terminal Preclassic/Early Classic monogenetic eruptions in the
and Atlixco area (upper Nexapa drainage). If these estimates are roughly Sierra Chchinautzin volcanic field and Serdán-Oriental basin
correct, at least 80,000 to 100,000 people might have lived within the
area directly impacted by the LP eruption, especially by lahar flooding The LP is not the only eruption that occurred within the time of
(see yellow area in Fig. 22). The latter encompasses not only the most transition between the Terminal Preclassic and Early Classic periods at

34
C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

the core region of Mesoamerican culture in central Mexico. Just west of includes the Terminal Preclassic farming village of Tetimpa, under >10
Popocatépetl extends the Sierra Chichinautzin Volcanic Field (ChVF in cm of pumice fallout. These values correspond to a high magnitude of
Figs. 1, 21), a volcanic highland elongated in an E–W direction that the eruption (VEI = 4). After several hours of sustained activity, the
separates the Basin of Mexico from other valleys in the south. It includes column collapsed producing extensive PDCs that extended in all di
visibly at least 220 overlapping Quaternary monogenetic scoria cones, rections from the crater, mainly along prominent ravines where they
associated lava flows, tephra sequences, and lava shields intercalated reached distances of up to 12 km at the break in slope of the volcano.
with alluvial sediments (e.g., Guilbaud et al., 2015). The last four These flows engulfed everything encountered in their paths (mostly
eruptions (scoria cones and associated lava flows) that took place in this forest vegetation) and overriding dilute PDCs reached a few kilometers
field, occurred during the first four centuries following the LP eruption. further.
They were all dated by the radiocarbon method (details of dates and The brief climactic Plinian phase of the eruption was followed during
their calibrations are listed in Table 4, for location of vents see Figs. 1, the subsequent months and years by the periodic emplacement of rain
21) and include in chronological order (Fig. 22): Jumento (2010 ± 30 yr lahars initiating on the upper slopes of Popocatépetl, as well as neigh
B.P., ~cal 0 CE; Arce et al., 2015), Chichinautzin (1835 ± 55 yr B.P., cal boring Iztaccíhuatl. The volume of these lahars increased significantly
200 CE; Siebe et al., 2004), Tefra Negra/Xicomulco? (1710 ± 30 yr B.P., by bulking during flowage in tephra-filled ravines. Upon reaching the
1820 ± 90 yr B.P., ~cal 220–350 CE; Álvarez-García, 2018; Álvarez- surrounding plains, they flowed overbank inundating and covering with
García et al., 2019), and Xitle (1670 ± 30 yr B.P.; cal 380–400 CE; Siebe, meter-thick sediment layers vast areas (~1900 km2) which until that
2000). The first two, Jumento and Chichinautzin, erupted high up in the time (Terminal Preclassic) had been occupied by numerous dispersed
mountains above 3000 m asl within the pine forest. Although they farming villages. We speculate that most inhabitants probably survived
produced ash fallout and lava flows, their impact on humans was the flooding by fleeing to higher ground between main channels and
probably limited. In contrast, the products (ash fallout and lava flows) of migrating to adjacent areas (e.g., the lacustrine Mexico and Serdán-
the last two eruptions (Tefra Negra and Xitle) impacted directly the Oriental basins) seeking for food and shelter, and increasing the popu
southern margin of the Mexico Basin, an area that was already densely lation of the rapidly expanding early Mesoamerican urban centers of
populated at that time. An up to 40-cm-thick hornblende-bearing Cuicuilco, Teotihuacan, and Cantona.
andesitic fallout layer, named “Tefra Negra” (Álvarez-García et al., The cataclysmic phase of the eruption was followed by the opening
2019), has been documented just underneath the Xitle products at the of the El Ombligo fissure vent at ~4000 m a.s.l. on Popocatépetl’s NE
Preclassic sites of Copilco and Cuicuilco and chemical fingerprinting upper slope from which four viscous andesitic-dacitic lava flows issued
indicates that it probably originated from the Xicomulco-Tzompoli forming the Pedregal de Nealtican, which covers an area of 70 km2 with
alignment of vents, ~13 km SE of Cuicuilco, near Xochimilco (Arce a total volume of 4.2 km3. This lava flow field resulted from an effusive
and Siebe, submitted). This means that Cuicuilco, the largest settlement phase of activity that lasted probably more than three decades (Ramírez-
within the southern Basin of Mexico and other sites in its periphery (e.g., Uribe et al., 2021). Paleomagnetic data for the lavas and stratigraphic
Copilco) were impacted twice by volcanic ash fallout in a short sequence evidence, both indicate that the lava flows were emplaced shortly after
(~100 years apart) before Xitle’s lavas definitely destroyed and buried the explosive Plinian phase. We envisage the Nealtican lava field with an
Cuicuilco around 1670 ± 35 yr B.P. (cal 380–400 CE) and that Cuicuilco estimated volume of ~4.2 km3 to represent the degassed portion of the
was probably abandoned as a direct consequence of this eruption. magma of the LP, hence a total of ~4.4 km3 was produced during the
Another eruption that occurred during Terminal Preclassic time in entire eruption.
central Mexico, is the ~20 CE monogenetic rhyolite eruption of the Las Previous radiocarbon dating efforts have postulated mainly two
Derrumbadas twin domes (Chedeville et al., 2020; Guilbaud et al., differing dates for the eruption. While Siebe et al. (1996) suggested an
2023), located in the interior of the Serdán-Oriental basin not far from age within the period 800–215 BCE based on uncalibrated BP dates from
the ancient city of Cantona (García-Cook, 2009), ~120 km ENE of samples in volcanic sediment contexts, Plunket and Uruñuela (2006)
Popocatépetl (Figs. 21 and 22). prefer an age within the first century CE based on a radiocarbon date
Although none of these eruptions were close in magnitude to the LP, from an archaeological context. Careful evaluation of published radio
they also had an environmental impact and probably contributed by carbon ages and their calibration with an updated program (CALIB 8.2;
different degrees to the modification of human settlement patterns and Stuiver et al., 2021) together with twenty new dates from volcanic
the rise of urban civilization in central Mexico. contexts and paleomagnetic data from the Nealtican lavas, all indicate
that this eruption occurred most probably during the first century BCE
11. Conclusions (~40 cal BCE), although a first century CE date (as proposed by Plunket
and Uruñuela, 2006) cannot be ruled out (Fig. 16). Given our present
Although Popocatépetl’s “Lorenzo pumice” (LP) deposit and the knowledge and the limitations inherent to the radiocarbon method, it
archaeological remains buried underneath have been known for several seems that the chemical identification of crypto-tephra aided by the
decades (e.g., Seele, 1973a; Siebe et al., 1996; Panfil et al., 1999; Plunket correlation of S-isotopes in sulfur-compounds from the LP eruption in
and Uruñuela, 1998, 2000), many of the eruption’s physical character polar ice-cores might be the most promising strategy to eventually
istics remained vague. In this study, the main eruptive parameters and pinpoint the date of this important eruption. A first effort in this direc
the stratigraphy of the deposits are reported comprehensively for the tion was not successful (Plunkett et al., 2022). Such a discovery could
first time, together with some significant amendments. represent a milestone in Mexican archaeology, since it would represent
The climactic phase of the eruption initiated quite abruptly with the an excellent absolute stratigraphic marker that could be helpful in
rise of a sustained Plinian column that produced an extensive pumice correlating ceramic sequences with greater precision across different
fallout deposit, named by us the “Lorenzo pumice”. The composition of archaeological excavation sites in one of Mesoamerica’s core areas.
LP clasts is andesitic-dacitic (Fig. 12, Tables 2, 3) and similar to other This eruption had a considerable impact on Terminal Preclassic
Popocatépetl products with phenocrysts of euhedral plagioclase (Plg) > settlements around the volcano, especially along ravines of the upper
orthopyroxene (Opx) > clinopyroxene (Cpx) ± olivine (Ol) ± horn Atoyac and Nexapa river drainages in the present state of Puebla. The
blende (Hbl) ± opaques (Op), and SiO2-contents ranging narrowly be population exodus from this area and relocation in neighboring lacus
tween 61.0 wt% at the base and 63.5 wt% toward the top of the deposit. trine basins probably contributed to the rise of important cities, such as
Through the construction of isopleth and isopach maps of the de Teotihuacán, Cuicuilco, and Cantona. Several years had to elapse, before
posit, we calculated an eruption column height of ~28 km and a deposit the devastated area could be repopulated and settlements would grow
volume of ~0.6 km3 (DRE ~0.2 km3). The prevailing winds dispersed again. One of these was Cholula, a site that rose to a large religious urban
the ejected materials toward the ENE burying an area of ~600 km2 that center after the LP eruption during the Classic period (Plunket and

35
C. Siebe et al. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Uruñuela, 2005). Appendix A. Supplementary data

The LP was the first and most powerful of a series of eruptions that
occurred in central Mexico during the Terminal Preclassic and Early Supplementary data to this article can be found online at [Link]
Classic periods. Our studies document that volcanism has been an in org/10.1016/[Link].2023.107974.
tegral part of the geological evolution of the central Mexican landscape
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~23,500 y 14C BP White Pumice Plinian eruption and associated debris avalanche the GISP2 Greenland ice core and implications for the volcano-climate system.
and Tochimilco lava flow of Popocatépetl volcano, México. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Science 264 (5161), 948–952. [Link]
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Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 445 (2024) 107974

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research

Radiocarbon dating, magnitude, and catastrophic impact of Popocatépetl’s

Table 1 disruption on nearby populations, it was desirable to determine its age

Plg Opx Cpx Ol Hbl Plg Px

Unit Detection Analytical

509-515 CE, part of Lorenzo

2005, 2006; Seele, 1973b). In addition, we included in our graph

deposited the LP.

10.1. Course of the eruption, impact, and regional consequences

From direct observations of the archaeological contexts in the

in place. Human remains pointing toward casualties from the eruption

Uruñuela, 2005). Appendix A. Supplementary data

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