I [Link] MODULE-1 ENGG.

PHYSICS

Wave Optics

 Introduction:

Wave optics, or physical optics, is the branch of physics that studies the wave nature of light,
explaining phenomena like interference, diffraction, and polarization that cannot be described by ray optics. It
views light as a transverse electromagnetic wave and provides a framework to analyze how light interacts with
matter and different mediums, leading to applications in fields such as lasers, fiber optics, and optical
instruments.

One of the best phenomenons that provides direct evidence for the wave nature of light. Thomas
young demonstrated that the concept of Interference of light in 1801 itself. Many of the observations in our
day-today life are due to interference of light. Examples are the multiple colors on soap bubble as well as on
thin layer of floating oil when viewed under sunlight. Interference based on the principle of Superposition of
waves.

 Principle of superposition:

Statement:
“When two or more waves travelling simultaneously in a medium, the resultant displacement at any point
is equal to the algebraic sum of the individual displacements of waves”.

To understand this let us consider two waves travelling simultaneously in a medium. At any point Let ‘y1’
be the displacement due to one wave at any instant in the absence of the other and ‘y2’ be the displacement of
the other wave at the same instant in the absence of the first wave.

Then the resultant displacement due to the presence of both the waves is given by

y  y1  y2

ve Sign has to be taken when both the displacements y1 & y 2 are in the same direction
ve Sign’ has to be taken when both the displacements y1 & y2 are in the opposite direction

 Young’s double slit experiment:

In 1801, Thomas Young first demonstrated experimentally the phenomenon of light.

I [Link] MODULE-1 [Link]

In this experiment he allowed sun light to pass through a small pin hole S and then at some distance through
two sufficiently close pin holes S 1 &S2 in opaque card board. The interference pattern is observed on the
screen. He observed few colored bright and dark bands on the screen. If sun light is replaced by
monochromatic light. The interference pattern consists of equally spaced bright and dark bands on the screen.
When monochromatic light passes through pin hole S, spherical waves spread out .we know from
Huygens principle that each point on the wave front is a centre of secondary wavelets. Hence spherical waves
also spread out from pin holes S1 &S2. The radii of these wave fronts increase as they move from S1 &S2 and
hence they superimpose on one another.
At points where Crest of one wave falls on the crest of the other wave (or trough on a trough),
the resultant amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes of individual waves. Hence the resultant intensity is
increased. This is known as constrictive interference.
a = a1+a2

At points where Crest of one wave falls on the trough of the other wave (or trough on a crest),
the resultant amplitude is the difference of the amplitudes of individual waves. Hence the resultant
intensity is decreased. This is known as destructive interference.

a = a1-a2

Thus the interference pattern consists of alternate dark and bright bands on the screen.

 Interference of Light:

When two light waves superimpose, then the resultant amplitude (or intensity) in the region of
superposition is different than the amplitude (or intensity) of individual waves. This modification in the
distribution of intensity in the region of superposion is called interference.

 Coherent sources and coherence:

Consider the sources S1 & S2 emitting light of particular wavelength (say λ) as shown in fig. AB is a
Screen placed at some distance from the sources. We have dots and dashes on the screen. The dots represent
the points which the waves superimpose constructively and dashes represent which the waves are
superimposed destructively.

Now we consider the following cases

1. The waves starting from S1 & S2 are in the same phase.

2. The waves starting from S1 & S2 differ in same phase by π.
3. The waves starting from S1 & S2 differ in any constant phase.
The two sources which maintain zero or constant phase relation between themselves are known as
coherent sources. This phenomenon is known as coherence.
However, if the phase difference changes with time, the two sources are known as incoherent sources.

These phase conditions at that point are determined by the following two factors:

(i) Phase condition of two sources, and

(ii) Phase relation developed in their journey towards the superposition point.
I [Link] MODULE-1 [Link]

From these two points, the formation of interference due to these factors we now produce the two
terms.

1. Temporal Coherence.
2. Spatial Coherence.
Temporal Coherence:
The difinet phase relationship exhibit only for finet span of time is known as temporal
coherence.

Spatial Coherence:

The correlation in phase between two spatially distinct points of the radiation field. (or) If there exists
either zero or constant phase angle difference between two points on a wave front then wave is said to be have
spatial coherence.

The waves are said to be coherent if the waves have

(i) Same Frequency

(ii) Same wave length
(iii) Same phase (or) constant phase difference.

 Conditions to get stationary interference fringes:

To obtain a permanent or stationary interference pattern, the conditions are classified into following
three parts.

(i) Conditions for sustained interference.

1. The two sources should be coherent. i.e., they should vibrate in the same phase or there
should be a constant phase difference between them.
2. The two sources must emit continuous waves of the same wavelength and time period.
(ii) Conditions for observation of the fringes.
1. The separation between the two sources should be small.
2. The distance between the two sources and the screen should be large.
3. The background of the screen should be dark.
(iii) Conditions for good contrast between maxima and minima.
1. The amplitude of the interfering waves should be equal or nearly equal.
2. The sources must be narrow. i.e., they must be extremely small.
3. The source should be a monochromatic.

 Interference in thin film by reflection (or) Cosine Law

Thin film:
A thin film is a layer of material ranging from fractions of a nanometer (monolayer) to
several micrometers in thickness.
I [Link] MODULE-1 [Link]

Let PQ and P1 and Q1 be the two surfaces of a transparent film of uniform thickness and refractive
index ‘μ’ as shown in fig. Suppose a ray OA of monochromatic light incident on its upper surface. This ray is
partly reflected along AR and refracted along AC. After one reflection at C, we obtain the ray CD. After
refraction at D, the ray finally undergoes out along DR 1 in air. Obviously DR1 is parallel to AR. our aim is to
find out the effective path difference between the rays BR and DR [Link] this purpose we draw a normal DB on
AR.

Then the path difference   ( AC  CD)  AB ……………. (1)

From triangle ACE
CE
cos r 
AC
CE t
AC   ……………….. (2)
cos r cos r
From triangle CDE
CE
cos r 
CD
CE t
CD   ………………. (3)
cos r cos r
From triangle ABD

Sin i= = ………………(4)

From Triangle ACE

tan r =

AE = EC tan r

AE = t tan r

Similarly Triangle ECD

tan r =

ED = EC tan r

EC = t tan r

Substitute AE and EC in the equation (4)

Sin i =

Sin i =

AB = 2t [Link] i

AB = 2t sin i
I [Link] MODULE-1 [Link]

2t sin r
AB   sin i
cos r

2t sin r sin i sin r

AB  
cos r sin r
2t sin 2 r sin i
AB  ……………………… (5) (  )
cos r sin r

On substituting the values of AC , CD & AB from Eq (2),(3)&(5) in Eq (1) ,we get

t t 2t sin 2 r
The path difference   (  )
cos r cos r cos r

2t 2t cos 2 r

 (1  sin 2 r )   2t cos r
cos r cos r

The path difference  2t cos r

According to the theory of reversibility or Stoke Theorem, when the light ray reflected at rarer-denser

interface, it introduces an extra phase difference  (or) path difference of
2

The actual path difference = 2μtcos r +
2
Case.1: condition for maximum intensity

We know that the intensity is maximum when path difference= n

 From Eq.(6)

2μtcos r + = n
2

2μtcos r = n -
2
2μtcos r = (2n-1)

Case.2: condition for minimum intensity


We know that the intensity is minimum when path difference  (2n  1)
2
 From Eq.(6)
 
2μtcos r +  (2n  1)
2 2
2μtcos r = nλ

 Complementary character of reflected and transmitted systems:

In Reflected system

Maximum intensity is 2μtcos r = (2n-1)

Minimum intensity is 2μtcos r = nλ
In Transmitted system
Maximum intensity is 2μtcos r = nλ
I [Link] MODULE-1 [Link]

Minimum intensity is2μtcos r = (2n-1)

From the above two systems the conditions for constructive and destructive in the interference and
transmitted systems are reversed. Thus the interference patterns obtained in the two cases become
complementary. So, when the film is of such a thickness that it has maximum intensity in the reflected system,
it will have minimum intensity in the transmitted system and vice versa.
 Production of Colors in thin films:

When a thin film is exposed to white light such as sunlight, beautiful colours appear in the reflected light.

(i) Soap bubble:

In this case if the thickness of the film‘t’ is constant, in the formula 2µt cos r = (2n-1) λ/2, µ and r are
variables. Since white light has varying ‘λ’ values, µ also varies with λ. Due to curved nature of bubble; angle
of refraction ‘r’ varies.

Hence in the formula 2µt cos r = (2n-1)λ/2, varying values of µ and r can satisfy the condition for
constructive interference for a particular wavelength only. Accordingly that point will appear bright in that
colour. Similar way different points satisfy the condition for constructive and hence appear multi colored.

(ii) Oil film:

In this case the surface is flat, when parallel sunlight is incident with incident angle i, and hence the
refraction angle r will remains constant. But different values of λ, µ varies and also the thickness of the film t
may not be constant throughout the film. Hence different points on the film satisfy the condition for
constructive for different colours depending on the values of µ and t and hence appear multicolored.

 Newton’s rings:

A Plano convex lens (L) having large focal length is placed with its convex surface on the glass plate
(P). A gradually increasing air film will be formed between the plane glass plate and convex surface of Plano
convex lens. The thickness of the air film will be zero at the point of contact (C). If monochromatic light
allowed to fall normally and the film is viewed in reflected light, alternate dark and bright rings concentric
around the point of contact between lens and the glass plate are seen. Since this phenomenon was first
discovered by Newton that is why the rings are known as Newton rings.

Experimental arrangement:

L is a Plano- convex lens of radius of large curvature. This lens with its convex surface is placed on a
glass plate P. The lens makes contact with the plate at O. Light from an extended monochromatic source such
as sodium vapor lamp falls on the glass plate G. held at an angle of 45 0 with the vertical. The glass plate
reflects normally a part of the incident light towards the air film enclosed by the lens L and the glass plate P.
A part of the incident light is reflected by the curved surface of the lens L and a part is transmitted which is
reflected back from the plane surface of the plate. These reflected rays interfere and gives rise to an
interference pattern in the form of circular rings. These rings are localized in the air film, and can be seen with
a microscope focused on the film.
I [Link] MODULE-1 [Link]

Formation of Newton Rings:

Newton’s rings are formed due to interference between the waves reflected from the top and
bottom surfaces of the air film formed between the plates. The formation of Newton’s rings can be
explained with the help of fig. AB is a monochromatic ray of light which is falls on the system. A part
is reflected at C (glass air boundary) which goes out in the form of ray 1 without any phase reversal.
The other part is refracted along CD. At point D it is again reflected and goes out in the form of ray 2
with a phase reversal of π. The reflected rays 1 and 2 are in a superimposition to produce interference
rings.

At the point of contact:

The thickness of the air film t=0, µ=1 & for normal incidence r = 0.

Then the path difference = .
2

If the Then the path difference = then the corresponding phase difference is π. so that
2
gives a dark spot is formed at the centre.

For bright ring:


2t   n
2

2t  (2n  1) ----------------------------------- (ii)
2

For Dark ring

 
2t   (2n  1)
2 2
2t  n ------------------------------------------- (iii)
I [Link] MODULE-1 [Link]

Consider a Plano convex lens is placed on a glass plate. Let R be the radius of curvature and r be
the radius of NEWTON ring, corresponding to constant film thickness.

In the above fig, from the property of the circle

NP  NQ  NO  ND

r x r = t (2R-t)

r 2  2 Rt  t 2

As t is small, t 2 is very small. So t 2 is neglected.

 r 2  2 Rt
r2 D2
t  t ------------------------ (iv)
2R 8R
Thus for bright ring

From Eq (ii) & (iv)

2D 2 
 (2n  1)
8R 2

Dn2  2(2n  1)R

---------------------------------------- (v)

Thus, the diameter of bright rings is proportional to the square roots of the odd natural numbers as
(2n-1) is an odd number.

Thus for dark ring

From Eq. (iii) & (iv)

2D 2
 n
8R

D……………………………..
n  4 Rn
2 (vi)

Thus, the diameter of dark rings is proportional to the square roots of the natural numbers.

It can be shown that fringe width decreases with the order of the fringe and fringes get closer with increase in
their order.
I [Link] MODULE-1 [Link]

Wave length of monochromatic light

From Eq(vi) Dn2  4 Rn 

For n  m , Dm2  4 Rm 
 Dm2  Dn2  4 Rm  4 Rn 
= 4 R (m  n)
Dm2  Dn2
  ------------------------------------ (vii)
4 R ( m  n)
This is the expression for wave length of monochromatic light.

Radius of curvature of plano convex lens

R=

Determination of refractive index of a liquid

The experimental set up as shown in fig. is used to find the refractive index of a liquid.

To find the refractive index of a liquid, the plane glass plate and Plano convex lens set up is placed in
a small metal container. The diameter of nth and mth dark rings are determined, when there is air between
Plano convex lens and plane glass plate.

Then we have,

Dm2  Dn2  4 Rm  4 Rn 

= 4 R (m  n) …………………….. (vii)

Now the given liquid whose refractive index (µ) is to be introduced in to the space between Plano
convex lens and plane glass plate without disturbing the experimental set up.

Then the diameters of Newton’s rings are changed. Now the diameter of nth and mth dark rings are measured.
Then

----------------------- (viii)
Therefore from (vii) & (viii)
I [Link] MODULE-1 [Link]

Newton’s rings with white light:

When monochromatic light is used, Newton rings are alternatively dark and bright. The diameter of
the ring is a function of wavelength of light used. In case of white light, the diameter of the rings of different
colors will be different. There will be an overlapping of the rings of different colors over each other. Thus,
only first few rings will be clear while other rings cannot be viewed.

 Applications of Interference:

1. Determine the wavelength of unknown monochromatic light source.

2. Find the separation between two closely-spaced wavelengths.
3. Measured the thickness and refractive index of a thin transparent sheet.
4. Determine the refractive index of a transparent liquid.
5. Construct and reconstruct holograms.
6. Measure the thickness of a thin film/paper or diameter of a thin wire.