M.E.

S INDIAN SCHOOL, DOHA - QATAR

Notes 2025- 2026
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POPULATIONS
A group of individuals of a species living in a geographical area, who can interbreed and
share similar resources is called a population
Population Attributes:
A population has certain attributes whereas an individual organism does not.
An individual may have births and deaths, but a population has birth rates and death
rates.
Characteristics of a Population
1. Birth rate
Average no. of young ones born in a period of time with respect to members of the
Population
The birth rate=Number of individuals added
Initial size of population
2. Death rate.
Average no. of deaths in a period of time with respect to members of the population.
The birth rate=Number of individuals died
Initial size of population
3. Sex Ratio
Sex ratio is another attributes of population. An individual may be male or female but
population has sex ratio.
It is the ratio between male and female in a population.
4. Age distribution
The graphical representation of the proportions of different age groups.
The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of the population, whether it is:-
(a) Expanding – Pre-reproductive > Reproductive > Post reproductive Because of the large number of
pre-reproductive individuals, size of the population increases.
(b) Stable- Pre-reproductive = Reproductive > Post reproductive
There is no increase or decrease in its size
(c) Declining- Pre-reproductive < Reproductive > Post reproductive As the fewer number of pre-
reproductive individuals, population show negative growth.

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Population density (N): It is the number of individuals of a species per unit area or volume.
N = Number of individuals (n)
Area (a)
In some cases, numerical density will be meaningless or difficult to measure, in such cases-
Biomass density is used. E.g.: As in case of banyan tree.
Relative density (without knowing absolute) is used for huge population. E.g.: As in case of culture
of bacteria, the number of fish caught per trap.
Indirect estimation of population sizes is performed.
E.g. Tiger census based on pug marks & faecal pellets

Population Growth
The population size changes in time, depending on various factors like food availability, predation
pressure & weather.
4 basic processes that fluctuate the population density:
1. Natality (B): It is the number of births in a population during a given period.
2. Mortality (D): It is the number of deaths in a population during a given period.
3. Immigration (I): It is the number of individuals of the same species that have come into the habitat
from elsewhere during a given time period.
4. Emigration (E): It is the number of individuals of the population who left the habitat and gone
elsewhere during a given time period.
• Natality & immigration increase the population density
• Mortality & emigration decrease the population density.
The population density at time t +1 is
Nt+1 = Nt + [(B + I) – (D + E)]

The population density increases if B + I is more than D + E. Otherwise it will decrease.

Growth Model
Growth of population takes place according to availability of food, habit condition and

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presence of other biotic and abiotic factors.
There are two Main types of growth Models.

Exponential Growth Logistic growth s

[Link] Growth
It is the graph obtained when population density is plotted against time.
It is shown by the population where the resources (food & space) are unlimited.
In the growth model change in population size (dN) over a specified short time (dt) is proportional to
the product of the population growth rate ‘r’ (the number of individuals added or subtracted from the
population) and the population size ‘N’.
Mathematically exponential growth model is represented by
dN = rN
dt
Where r (Intrinsic rate of natural increase) = b–d
Where, b = the birth rates
d = death rates
The integral form of the exponential growth equation is
Nt = N0 e rt
Where,
Nt = Population density after time t
N0 = Population density at time zero
e = the base of natural logarithms (2.71828)

[Link] growth (proposed by Verhulst & Pearl )

It is shown by most animal population where the resources are finite.
• The logistic growth cure has- lag phase (initial phase), phases of acceleration and deceleration
and finally an asymptote, when the population density reaches the carrying capacity.

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 Carrying capacity (K): It is the maximum population size that can be supported the
environment.
• A plot of N in relation to time (t) results in a sigmoid curve. This type of population growth is
called Verhulst-Pearl Logistic Growth and is described by the following equation:

Where,
N= population size at time‘t’
r = Intrinsic rate of natural increase
K = carrying capacity
Population Interactions
In nature, the organisms interact with other organisms for their growth, nutrition, reproduction,
protection etc.

[Link]: It is interaction in which one species (predator) capture and feed on another species
(prey).
Importance of predation:
A. Predation channelizes the energy transfer across trophic levels.
B. Predators keep prey populations under control.
When exotic species are introduced into a geographical area, they spread fast due to the
absence its natural predators in the invaded land.
E.g. In Australia, the invasive cactus was brought under control only after a cactus-feeding
predator (a moth) was introduced.
C. Biological control methods are based on the ability of the predator to regulate prey
population.
D. Predators maintain species diversity in a community, by reducing the intensity of
competition among competing prey species.
E.g. In American Pacific Coast, the starfish Pisaster (predator) maintain invertebrates diversity
by reducing interspecific competition

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Defence mechanisms of prey species:
1. To avoid being detected by the predator, some insects & frogs are camouflaged (cryptically
coloured).
2. Some species are poisonous and so avoided by the predators.
E.g.: The Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator (bird) due to a special chemical
in its body.
3. Thorns protect the plants from browsing animals as in Acacia, Cactus etc.
4. Many plants produce chemicals that make the herbivore sick, inhibit feeding or digestion,
disrupt its reproduction or kill it.
Nicotine, caffeine, quinine, strychnine, opium etc. are defences against grazers and browsers.
- Calotropis (a weed) produce highly poisonous cardiac glycosides and so no cattle or goats
browse on this plant.
[Link]
Competition is best defined as a process in which the fitness of one species (measured in terms
of its ‘r’ the intrinsic rate of increase) is significantly lower in the presence of another species.
(i) Interspecific competition: competition between two different species
(ii) Intraspecific competition: competition between two same species
ü South American lakes, visiting flamingoes and resident fishes compete for their
common food, the zooplankton in the lake.
ü The Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands became extinct within a decade after goats
were introduced on the island, apparently due to the greater browsing efficiency of the
goats.

• Connell’s elegant field experiments showed that on the rocky sea coasts of Scotland,
the larger and competitively superior barnacle Balanus dominates the intertidal area,
and excludes the smaller barnacle Chathamalus from that zone.
• Gause’s ‘Competitive Exclusion Principle’ – it states that two closely related species
competing for the same resources cannot co-exist indefinitely and the competitively
inferior one will be eliminated eventually.
• Resource partitioning- if two species compete for the same resource, they could avoid
competition by choosing, for instance, different times for feeding or different foraging
patterns. MacArthur showed that five closely related species of warblers living on the
same tree were able to avoid competition and co-exist due to behavioral differences in
their foraging activities.

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 [Link]
Parasitism: It is interaction in which one species (parasite) derives nutrition from other
(host).

Adaptations of parasites:
1. Loss of sense organs
2. Presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling on to the host
3. Loss of digestive system
4. High reproductive capacity etc.
Ways of affecting host:
a. Parasite reduces the survival, growth, reproduction and population
density of the host.
b. Parasite makes host physically weak, cause them risk of predation.
Types of parasites:
A. Ectoparasites: Parasites that feed on the external surface of the
host organism.
E.g. - lice on humans
- ticks on dogs
- copepods infesting on marine fish
- Cuscuta on hedge plants
B. Endoparasites: Parasites that live inside the host body.
Brood parasitism:
Here, the parasitic birds lay eggs in the nest of host bird and let
the host incubate them.
E.g.: Cuckoo laying eggs in the nest of crow.

d. Commensalism
Commensalism: It is the interaction in which one species is benefitted and the other is
neither benefitted nor harmed.
Examples:
• Orchid (+) growing as epiphyte on a mango branch (0).
Orchid get proper sunlight and they absorb moisture from humid air and prepare their own food.
• Barnacles (+) growing on the back of a whale (0).
The barnacles get protection, transport and better feeding.

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 • Cattle egret (+) & grazing cattle (0).
As the cattle move in vegetation, insects are easily noticed and caught up by the egrets.
• Sea anemone (0) & clown fish (+).
The fish gets protection from predators with the help of stinging tentacles of sea anemone.
e. Mutualism-Mutualism: It is the interaction in which both the species are benefitted.
Examples:
• Lichen: It is the association between a protecting fungus & photosynthesizing alga.
• Mycorrhizae: It is the associations between fungi (help in absorption of nutrients) & the roots
of higher plants (provides carbohydrates).
• Fig trees & wasps: The fig trees are pollinated by wasp. The fig offers seeds, as food for the
wasp larvae.
• Ophrys (the Mediterranean orchid) & bees: Insect helps in pollination.
One petal of ophrys flower resembles female bee. So male bee ‘pseudocopulates’ with the flower.
The bee is dusted with pollen from the flower. When the same bee ‘pseudocopulates’ with another
flower, it transfers pollen to it.
[Link]-Amensalism: It is the interaction in which one species (inhibitor)
cause harm to other with its toxic secretion
Examples: Penicillium (a mould) secretes penicillin which kills bacteria.

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