1.

❌ Affirming the Consequent

MODULE 8: IDENTIFYING
FORMAL FALLACIES 📌 Form:

🧠 I. What is a Formal Fallacy?  If P → Q

∴P❌
 Q

A formal fallacy is an error in the structure (form) of an
argument, not just in the content.
📌 Why it's wrong:
 Even if the statements are true, the argument can
still be invalid because of faulty reasoning. Just because Q is true doesn’t mean P caused it.
 Focus is on logical form, not meaning.
📌 Example:
✔️Key Idea:
1. If it rains, the ground is wet

∴ It rained ❌
If the structure is wrong → the conclusion does NOT 2. The ground is wet
logically follow 3.

🧩 II. Valid vs Invalid Arguments 👉 The ground could be wet for other reasons.

✔️Valid Argument 2. ❌ Denying the Antecedent

An argument is valid if: 📌 Form:

 If all premises are true → conclusion must be true  If P → Q

∴ Not Q ❌
 Not P
Example: 

1. All humans are mortal 📌 Why it's wrong:

∴ Socrates is mortal ✅ (Valid)

2. Socrates is a human
3. Q can still happen even if P didn’t.

❌ Invalid Argument 📌 Example:

 Even if premises are true → conclusion may be 1. If I study, I will pass

∴ I will not pass ❌

false 2. I did not study
3.
Example:
👉 You might still pass.
1. All cats are animals

∴ Dog is a cat ❌ (Invalid)

2. Dog is an animal 3. ❌ Undistributed Middle
3.
📌 Form:
🧱 III. Structure of Arguments (Symbolic Form)
 All A are B

∴ C is A ❌
We use letters to represent statements:  C is B

 P, Q, R = propositions
📌 Why it's wrong:
Example:
The middle term (B) is not properly connected.
 If P → Q

∴ Q → Valid (Modus Ponens)

 P 📌 Example:

1. All doctors are educated

∴ Maria is a doctor ❌
2. Maria is educated
3.
⚠️IV. Common Types of Formal Fallacies
4. ❌ Illicit Major  If P → Q

∴ Not P ✅
 Not Q
📌 Form: 

 All A are B Example:

∴ No C are A ❌
 No C are B If I study, I pass

∴ I did not study

 I did not pass

📌 Problem:

The major term (predicate) is improperly used.

✔️3. Hypothetical Syllogism
📌 Example:
 If P → Q

∴ If P → R ✅
1. All cats are animals  If Q → R

∴ No dogs are animals ❌

2. No dogs are cats 
3.

✔️4. Disjunctive Syllogism

5. ❌ Illicit Minor
 P or Q

∴Q✅
📌 Form:  Not P

 All A are B

∴ All C are B ❌
 All A are C

🧪 VI. How to Identify Formal Fallacies (Step-by-Step)
📌 Problem:
🔍 Step 1: Identify the Structure
The minor term (subject) is wrongly generalized.
 Rewrite argument using symbols (P, Q)
📌 Example:
🔍 Step 2: Check the Pattern
1. All roses are flowers

∴ All red things are flowers ❌

2. All roses are red Ask:
3.
 Is it like If P → Q, Q ∴ P? → Affirming the

Is it If P → Q, Not P ∴ Not Q? → Denying the

Consequent

🔁 V. Valid Argument Forms (For Comparison) Antecedent

Knowing valid forms helps you spot fallacies. 🔍 Step 3: Ignore Content

Focus only on structure—not meaning.

✔️1. Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent)

 If P → Q 📝 VII. Quick Comparison Table

∴Q✅
 P

If P→Q, P ∴ Q
 Type Form Valid/Invalid

If P→Q, ¬Q ∴ ¬P ✅ Valid
Modus Ponens ✅ Valid

If P→Q, Q ∴ P ❌ Fallacy
Example: Modus Tollens
If it rains, the ground is wet
If P→Q, ¬P ∴ ¬Q ❌ Fallacy
Affirming Consequent

∴ Ground is wet
It rains
Denying Antecedent

🎯 VIII. Key Tips for Exams

✔️2. Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent)
✔️Look for IF–THEN statements 🔗 III. Logical Connectives and Their Truth Tables
✔️Convert to symbols (P, Q)
✔️Compare with known patterns
✔️Don’t be fooled by “true” statements
✔️Focus on logic, not facts
1. Negation (NOT)

Symbol: ¬P

💡 IX. Simple Memory Tricks P¬

P
 AC (Affirming Consequent) → “You can’t go TF
backward”
FT
 DA (Denying Antecedent) → “You can’t assume
the opposite”
 Valid forms = forward or backward correctly
2. Conjunction (AND)

Symbol: P ∧ Q

P∧
🧠 X. Practice Example
P Q
Question: Q
T T T
1. If a person is a nurse, then they studied healthcare T F F
F T F
∴ Ana is a nurse
2. Ana studied healthcare
3. F F F

Answer: ✔️True only if BOTH are true

 Form: If P → Q, Q ∴ P
 ❌ Affirming the Consequent (Fallacy)
3. Disjunction (OR)

Symbol: P ∨ Q

P∨
MODULE 9: TRUTH TABLE P Q
METHOD Q
T T T
T F T
📌 I. What is a Truth Table?
F T T
F F F
A truth table is a tool in logic used to:
✔️True if at least ONE is true
 Show all possible truth values of propositions
 Determine if an argument is valid or invalid

✔️Key Idea:
4. Conditional (IF–THEN)
An argument is VALID if there is NO case where:
Symbol: P → Q
 All premises are TRUE
 But the conclusion is FALSE P Q P→Q
T T T
T F F❗
F T T
F F T
🔤 II. Basic Truth Values
✔️Only false when:
Symbol Meaning
T True
 P is TRUE and Q is FALSE
F False
5. Biconditional (IF AND ONLY IF)  ALL premises = TRUE
 Conclusion = FALSE ❗
Symbol: P ↔ Q

P Q P↔Q
T T T 🪜 Step 6: Decide Validity
T F F
F T F  ❌ If at least ONE such row exists → INVALID
F F T  ✅ If NONE → VALID

✔️True when both have same value

🧩 V. Example (Step-by-Step)

🧪 IV. Steps in Testing Validity Using Truth Table Argument:

1. If P → Q

∴Q
2. P
🪜 Step 1: Assign Variables 3.

Convert statements into symbols:

 P, Q, R Truth Table:

P Q P→Q Premises True? Conclusion (Q)

T T T ✅ T
🪜 Step 2: List All Possible Combinations T F F ❌ F
F T T ❌ T
For: F F T ❌ F

 1 variable → 2 rows
 2 variables → 4 rows ✔️Analysis:
 3 variables → 8 rows
 Only check row where premises are TRUE
Formula:  That row: conclusion is also TRUE

Rows = 2ⁿ 👉 ✅ VALID argument

🪜 Step 3: Construct Truth Table ❌ VI. Example of INVALID Argument

Include columns for: Argument:

 Each variable 1. If P → Q

∴P
 Each premise 2. Q
 Conclusion 3.

P Q P→Q Premises True? Conclusion (P)

🪜 Step 4: Evaluate Premises T T T ✅ T
T F F ❌ T
Compute truth values for each premise row by row. F T T ✅❗ F❗
F F T ❌ F

🪜 Step 5: Check Critical Rows ❗ Key Row:

Look for rows where:  Premises TRUE

 Conclusion FALSE
👉 ❌ INVALID (Affirming the Consequent)  This is VALID (Disjunctive Syllogism)

⚠️VII. Important Reminders 📌 XI. Summary (Super Quick)

✔️Always focus on rows where ALL premises are TRUE  Truth table = test ALL possibilities
✔️Ignore rows where even one premise is FALSE  Valid = no “True premises + False conclusion”
✔️One counterexample = INVALID  Invalid = at least one counterexample
✔️No counterexample = VALID  Rows = 2ⁿ

🧠 VIII. Shortcuts / Tips

MODULE 10: RULES OF
💡 1. Conditional Trick INFERENCE
 Only false when: 📌 I. What are Rules of Inference?

TRUE → FALSE Rules of Inference are valid patterns of reasoning used to:

 Derive conclusions from given premises

 Ensure arguments are logically valid
💡 2. Fast Row Pattern (2 variables)
✔️Key Idea:
P Q
T T If you follow a correct rule of inference → your conclusion
T F is guaranteed valid
F T
F F

🔤 II. Types of Rules of Inference

💡 3. Label Premises Clearly
There are two main categories:
Helps avoid confusion in big tables
1. Implication Rules (if–then reasoning)
2. Replacement Rules (rearranging statements
logically)
📊 IX. Common Mistakes

❌ Not checking ALL rows

❌ Miscomputing P → Q 🔷 A. IMPLICATION RULES
❌ Forgetting to check ONLY rows where premises are
TRUE
❌ Mixing up conclusion column
1. ✅ Modus Ponens (MP)

📌 Form:

P→Q, P ∴QP \to Q,\; P \; \therefore QP→Q,P∴Q

🎯 X. Practice Example

Test this:

P∨Q
📌 Meaning:
1.

∴Q
2. ¬P  If P implies Q
3.  P is true
 Therefore Q is true
👉 Try building the table!
📌 Example:
✔️Answer:
If it rains, the ground is wet I will study or sleep

∴ The ground is wet ✅ ∴ I will sleep ✅

It rains I did not study

2. ✅ Modus Tollens (MT) 5. ✅ Constructive Dilemma (CD)

📌 Form: 📌 Form:

P→Q, ¬Q ∴¬PP \to Q,\; \neg Q \; \therefore \neg (P→Q)∧(R→S), P∨R ∴Q∨S(P \to Q) \land (R \to S),\; P \
PP→Q,¬Q∴¬P lor R \; \therefore Q \lor S(P→Q)∧(R→S),P∨R∴Q∨S

📌 Meaning: 📌 Meaning:

 If P implies Q  Two conditions + one must happen → result is one

 Q is false of the outcomes
 Therefore P is false
📌 Example:
📌 Example:
If I study, I pass
If I study, I pass If I work, I earn money

∴ I did not study ✅ ∴ I will pass or earn money ✅

I did not pass I will study or work

3. ✅ Hypothetical Syllogism (HS) 6. ✅ Destructive Dilemma (DD)

📌 Form: 📌 Form:

P→Q, Q→R ∴P→RP \to Q,\; Q \to R \; \therefore P \to (P→Q)∧(R→S), ¬Q∨¬S ∴¬P∨¬R(P \to Q) \land (R \to
RP→Q,Q→R∴P→R S),\; \neg Q \lor \neg S \; \therefore \neg P \lor \neg
R(P→Q)∧(R→S),¬Q∨¬S∴¬P∨¬R
📌 Meaning:
📌 Meaning:
 Chain of conditions
 If outcomes fail → at least one condition did not
📌 Example: happen

If I wake up early, I go jogging 📌 Example:

∴ If I wake up early, I stay healthy ✅

If I go jogging, I stay healthy
If I study, I pass
If I work, I earn

∴ I did not study or did not work ✅

I did not pass or did not earn

4. ✅ Disjunctive Syllogism (DS)

📌 Form:
🔶 B. REPLACEMENT RULES
P∨Q, ¬P ∴QP \lor Q,\; \neg P \; \therefore QP∨Q,¬P∴Q

📌 Meaning:
7. ✅ Simplification (Simp)
 One is false → the other must be true
📌 Form:

P∧Q ∴PP \land Q \; \therefore PP∧Q∴P

📌 Example:

📌 Meaning:
  From a compound statement, take one part

📌 Example: 🧪 III. How to Apply Rules of Inference

∴ I study ✅
I study and I exercise 🪜 Step-by-Step:

1. Identify given premises

2. Match with a rule pattern
3. Apply the rule correctly
8. ✅ Conjunction (Conj) 4. Derive a new conclusion
5. Repeat until final conclusion is reached
📌 Form:

P, Q ∴P∧QP,\; Q \; \therefore P \land QP,Q∴P∧Q

⚠️IV. Common Mistakes
📌 Meaning:
❌ Confusing Modus Ponens with fallacies
 Combine two true statements ❌ Applying wrong rule to structure
❌ Skipping steps in derivation
❌ Misreading “or” (∨) vs “and” (∧)
📌 Example:

I study

∴ I study and exercise ✅

I exercise
🎯 V. Quick Summary Table

Rule Key Idea

Modus Ponens If P then Q, P → Q
Modus Tollens If P then Q, not Q → not P
9. ✅ Addition (Add)
Hypothetical Chain conditionals
Syllogism
📌 Form: Disjunctive Syllogism Eliminate one option

P ∴P∨QP \; \therefore P \lor QP∴P∨Q

Constructive Dilemma Two options → two outcomes
Destructive Dilemma Failed outcomes → failed
causes
📌 Meaning: Simplification Take one from AND
Conjunction Combine statements
 If one is true → “or” statement is true Addition Add an OR
Absorption Expand conditional
📌 Example:

∴ I passed or I failed the next exam ✅

I passed 🧠 VI. Memory Tricks

 MP → “Forward” reasoning
 MT → “Backward” reasoning
 HS → “Chain rule”
 DS → “Eliminate one”
10. ✅ Absorption (Abs)
 CD/DD → “Dilemma = two choices”
📌 Form:

P→Q ∴P→(P∧Q)P \to Q \; \therefore P \to (P \land

📝 VII. Practice Example
Q)P→Q∴P→(P∧Q)

Given:
📌 Meaning:

1. If P → Q
 Strengthens the conclusion by adding P
2. If Q → R
3. P
📌 Example:
Solution:
∴ If I study, I study and pass ✅
If I study, I pass
 From (1) and (3) → Q (Modus Ponens)
  From Q and (2) → R (Modus Ponens)

👉 Final Answer: R 💪 V. Strength of Argument by Analogy

An analogy is STRONG if:

 Similarities are many and relevant

MODULE 11: INDUCTIVE  Differences are few and not important

ARGUMENTS ✔️Strong Analogy Example:

📌 I. What is an Inductive Argument?  Both patients have same symptoms, age, and
condition

∴ The other will likely respond well ✅

An inductive argument is a type of reasoning where:  One responded well to a drug

 The premises support the conclusion
 But do NOT guarantee it

✔️Key Idea: ❌ Weak Analogy Example:

Inductive reasoning = probable truth, not absolute certainty  Both are humans

∴ Teacher knows medical procedures ❌

 One is a nurse, the other is a teacher


🔍 II. Deductive vs Inductive (Quick Comparison)

Type Conclusion ⚠️VI. Limitations of Argument by Analogy

Deductive Certain (100%)
Inductive Probable (likely true) Even strong analogies have limits:

1. ❌ Similarities may be superficial

2. ❌ Important differences may be ignored
📊 III. Characteristics of Inductive Arguments
3. ❌ Conclusion is still not certain
4. ❌ Can lead to false generalization
✔️Based on observation or experience
✔️Moves from specific → general
✔️Conclusion can be strong or weak
✔️Can be affected by new evidence
🧪 VII. Judging the Strength of Argument by Analogy

To evaluate if an analogy is strong or weak, consider:

🧩 IV. Argument by Analogy

📌 Definition:
1. 🔢 Number of Entities
An argument by analogy compares two or more things
and concludes they are alike in another way.  More things being compared → stronger argument

📌 Structure: ✔️Example:
Comparing many patients vs only one
 A and B are similar in some ways

∴ B probably has property X

 A has property X

2. 🌈 Variety of Instances

 Different types of examples → stronger

📌 Example:
✔️Example:
 Human heart pumps blood Different ages, genders, conditions

∴ Pig heart likely pumps blood ✅

 Pig heart is similar to human heart

3. 🔍 Number of Respects  Number of respects → high
 Relevance → strong
 More shared similarities → stronger  Conclusion → reasonable

✔️Example: 👉 STRONG inductive argument

Same symptoms, diagnosis, treatment

❌ X. Weak Example
4. 🎯 Relevance of Instances
 Both cars are red

∴ The other is fast

 Similarities must be relevant to the conclusion  One is fast

✔️Strong:
Same disease → same treatment 👉 ❌ Weak:
Color is irrelevant
❌ Weak:
Same height → same disease

📝 XI. Key Tips for Exams

5. ⚠️Nature of Disanalogy ✔️Look for comparison between two things

✔️Ask: Are similarities relevant?
 Differences weaken the argument ✔️Check for important differences
✔️Avoid conclusions that are too absolute
✔️Use terms like:
✔️Minor differences → still strong
❌ Major differences → weak argument
 “likely”
 “probably”
 “suggests”

6. 📢 Nature of Claims

 If conclusion is too strong → weak argument 📌 XII. Quick Summary

✔️Better:  Inductive = probable reasoning

“Probably true”  Analogy = comparison-based reasoning
 Strength depends on:
❌ Weak: o Similarities
“Definitely true” (too certain) o Relevance
o Differences
 Never 100% certain

🧠 VIII. Strong vs Weak Analogy Summary

Strong Analogy
Many similarities
Weak Analogy
Few similarities
MODULE 12: MILL’S
Relevant similarities Irrelevant similarities SCIENTIFIC INDUCTIVE
Few differences Many differences
Moderate conclusion Overgeneralized conclusion METHODS
📌 I. What are Mill’s Methods?
🎯 IX. Example Analysis
Mill’s Methods (developed by John Stuart Mill) are
Argument: systematic ways to:

 Patient A and B have same symptoms  Identify cause-and-effect relationships

 Analyze scientific and real-life situations
∴ Patient B will recover
 Patient A recovered after treatment

✔️Key Idea:
✔️Evaluation:
These methods help us discover what causes something to 📌 Structure:
happen
 Case 1: A, B, C → Effect

∴ A is the cause
 Case 2: B, C → No Effect

🔬 II. Overview of the Methods

1. Method of Agreement
2. Method of Difference 📌 Example:
3. Joint Method of Agreement and Difference
4. Method of Residues  Person A ate seafood → got sick
5. Method of Concomitant Variation  Person B did not eat seafood → did not get sick

👉 ∴ Seafood caused sickness

🔷 1. METHOD OF AGREEMENT

📌 Definition: ✔️Key Idea:

If two or more cases have the same outcome, and share Look for what is different
one common factor, that factor is likely the cause.

🔷 3. JOINT METHOD (Agreement + Difference)

📌 Structure:
📌 Definition:
 Case 1: A, B, C → Effect
 Case 2: A, D, E → Effect
Combines both methods:
∴ A is the cause
 Case 3: A, F, G → Effect

 Find common factor in cases with effect
 Confirm by checking cases without effect

📌 Example:
📌 Structure:
 Person 1 ate chicken, rice → got sick
 Person 2 ate chicken, vegetables → got sick
 Person 3 ate chicken, bread → got sick  Cases with effect → share A

∴ A is cause
 Cases without effect → do not have A

👉 ∴ Chicken likely caused illness
👉 Common factor: chicken

📌 Example:
✔️Key Idea:
 Sick people all drank milk
 Healthy people did not drink milk
Look for what is common

👉 ∴ Milk likely caused illness

🔶 2. METHOD OF DIFFERENCE

✔️Key Idea:
📌 Definition:

Stronger evidence because it uses both similarity and

If two cases are identical except for one factor, and the
difference
effect occurs in one but not the other, that factor is the
cause.

🔶 4. METHOD OF RESIDUES
📌 Definition: Look for patterns of change

When part of an effect is already explained, the remaining

effect is caused by the remaining factor.
⚠️III. Limitations of Mill’s Methods

❌ Cannot always prove exact cause

📌 Structure: ❌ May ignore hidden variables
❌ Requires accurate observation
 A→X ❌ Correlation ≠ causation (especially in variation)
 B→Y
 C→?

∴ C causes Z
 Total effect = X + Y + Z
 🧠 IV. Comparison Table

Method Focus Key Idea

Agreement Similar cases Common factor =
📌 Example: cause
Difference Compare 2 Difference = cause
 Fever caused by virus cases
 Pain caused by injury Joint Method Both Stronger evidence
 Remaining symptom (fatigue) → unknown Residues Leftover Remaining cause

👉 ∴ Fatigue likely caused by another factor

effect
Concomitant Change Related variables
Variation

✔️Key Idea: 🎯 V. Tips for Exams

Remove known causes → find the remaining cause ✔️Identify if cases are similar or different
✔️Look for common factor or changing factor
✔️Ask:

 “What is present in all cases?”

🔷 5. METHOD OF CONCOMITANT VARIATION  “What is missing?”
 “What changes with the effect?”
📌 Definition:

If one factor changes, and another factor changes in a

consistent way, they are likely related. 📝 VI. Practice Example

Scenario:

📌 Structure:  Students who drank coffee stayed awake

 Students who didn’t drink coffee felt sleepy
 Increase A → Increase B

∴ A and B are related

 Decrease A → Decrease B 👉 Method: Joint Method
 👉 Conclusion: Coffee affects alertness

📌 Example: 📌 VII. Quick Memory Tricks

 More exercise → more weight loss  Agreement → SAME

 Less exercise → less weight loss  Difference → CHANGE

👉 ∴ Exercise affects weight

 Joint → BOTH
 Residues → LEFTOVER
 Variation → CHANGE TOGETHER

✔️Key Idea:
💡 Final Summary 📌 Example:

∴ Shirt caused success ❌

 Mill’s Methods = tools to find cause-and-effect  I wore a lucky shirt and passed the exam
 Used in science, medicine, research 
 Based on observation and comparison
 Help form strong inductive conclusions 👉 Also called post hoc fallacy

MODULE 13: INFORMAL 🔷 3. Fallacy of Consequent

FALLACIES 📌 Definition:

📌 I. What are Informal Fallacies? Assuming a conclusion based on a result, not the actual
cause
Informal fallacies are errors in reasoning caused by the
content, context, or language of an argument—not its 📌 Example:
structure.
 If it rains, the ground is wet

∴ It rained ❌
✔️Key Idea:  Ground is wet

The argument may sound convincing, but it is logically
weak or misleading 👉 Same as affirming the consequent

🔍 II. Formal vs Informal Fallacies (Quick Review) 🔶 4. Fallacy of Multiple Questions (Loaded Question)

Type Problem 📌 Definition:

Formal Fallacy Error in structure
Informal Fallacy Error in content/meaning Asking a question that assumes something unproven

📌 Example:
⚠️III. TYPES OF INFORMAL FALLACIES
 “Have you stopped cheating?” ❌

👉 Assumes the person was cheating

🔷 1. Fallacy of Accident

📌 Definition:
🔷 5. Fallacy of Begging the Question
Applying a general rule to a situation where it should not
apply 📌 Definition:

📌 Example: The conclusion is already assumed in the premise

 Rule: “Do not lie” 📌 Example:

∴ Lying is always wrong ❌

 Situation: Lying to protect someone’s life
  “This law is good because it is beneficial” ❌

👉 Ignores exceptions 👉 Circular reasoning

🔶 2. Fallacy of False Cause 🔶 6. Arguing Beside the Point (Ignoratio Elenchi)

📌 Definition: 📌 Definition:

Assuming that one event caused another just because it Giving an argument that does not address the actual issue
came before or is related
📌 Example: 👉 Not all authorities are experts

 “You shouldn’t complain about tuition because

school is important” ❌
🔷 11. Appeal to Might / Force (Ad Baculum)
👉 Avoids the real issue
📌 Definition:

Using threats or force to make someone accept a

🔷 7. Appeal to Individual (Ad Hominem) conclusion

📌 Definition: 📌 Example:

Attacking the person instead of the argument  “Agree with me or you’ll fail” ❌

📌 Example:

 “Don’t listen to her, she’s not smart” ❌ 🧠 IV. Summary Table

👉 Focuses on person, not reasoning Fallacy Key Idea

Accident Misapplied rule
False Cause Wrong cause-effect
Consequent Wrong reasoning from result
🔶 8. Appeal to People (Bandwagon) Multiple Questions Loaded assumption
Begging the Question Circular reasoning
📌 Definition: Beside the Point Irrelevant argument
Ad Hominem Attack person
Bandwagon Appeal to popularity
Something is true because many people believe it
Appeal to Pity Uses emotion
Appeal to Authority Blind trust
📌 Example: Appeal to Force Uses threat

 “Everyone uses this product, so it must be good” ❌

⚠️V. How to Identify Informal Fallacies

🔍 Ask yourself:
🔷 9. Appeal to Pity
 Is the argument relevant?
📌 Definition:  Is it based on facts or emotions?
 Is the person being attacked instead of the idea?
Using sympathy or emotion instead of logic  Is there an unsupported assumption?

📌 Example:

 “Please pass me, I tried hard” ❌ 🎯 VI. Tips for Exams

✔️Focus on how the argument is presented

✔️Watch for emotional manipulation
🔶 10. Appeal to Respect / Authority ✔️Identify hidden assumptions
✔️Don’t be fooled by popular opinions or authority
📌 Definition: ✔️Look for irrelevance

Accepting a claim just because an authority or expert says

it
📝 VII. Practice Example
📌 Example:
Statement:
 “A celebrity said this medicine works, so it must be
true” ❌ “Everyone is buying this phone, so it must be the best.”
👉 Fallacy: Appeal to People (Bandwagon)

💡 VIII. Quick Memory Tricks

 Ad Hominem → Attack the person

 Bandwagon → Follow the crowd
 Pity → Emotion-based
 Authority → “Expert said so”
 Force → Threat-based

📌 Final Summary

 Informal fallacies = errors in content or

reasoning
 Often sound convincing but are logically weak
 Important in arguments, debates, and real-life
decisions.