MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS 67

5.1.1 Regions of the Root

The root is covered at the apex by a thimble-like
structure called the root cap (Figure 5.3). It
protects the tender apex of the root as it makes
its way through the soil. A few millimetres above
the root cap is the region of meristematic
activity. The cells of this region are very small,
thin-walled and with dense protoplasm. They
divide repeatedly. The cells proximal to this
region undergo rapid elongation and
enlargement and are responsible for the growth
of the root in length. This region is called the
region of elongation. The cells of the elongation
zone gradually differentiate and mature. Hence,
this zone, proximal to region of elongation, is
called the region of maturation. From this
region some of the epidermal cells form very fine Figure 5.3 The regions of the root-tip
and delicate, thread-like structures called root
hairs. These root hairs absorb water and
minerals from the soil.

5.1.2 Modifications of Root

Roots in some plants change their shape and
structure and become modified to perform
functions other than absorption and
conduction of water and minerals. They are
modified for support, storage of food and
respiration (Figure 5.4 and 5.5). Tap roots of
carrot, turnip and adventitious roots of sweet
potato, get swollen and store food. Can you give
some more such examples? Have you ever
wondered what those hanging structures that
support a banyan tree are? These are called
prop roots. Similarly, the stems of maize and
sugarcane have supporting roots coming out
of the lower nodes of the stem. These are called
stilt roots. In some plants such as Rhizophora
growing in swampy areas, many roots come out
of the ground and grow vertically upwards.
Such roots, called pneumatophores, help to Figure 5.4 Modification of root for support:
get oxygen for respiration. Banyan tree

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Turnip Carrot Sweet

potato
Asparagus
(a) (b)

Figure 5.5 Modification of root for : (a) storage (b) respiration: pneumatophore in
Rhizophora

5.2 THE STEM

What are the features that distinguish a stem from a root? The stem is the
ascending part of the axis bearing branches, leaves, flowers and fruits. It
develops from the plumule of the embryo of a germinating seed. The stem
bears nodes and internodes. The region of the stem where leaves are
born are called nodes while internodes are the portions between two nodes.
The stem bears buds, which may be terminal or axillary. Stem is generally
green when young and later often become woody and dark brown.
The main function of the stem is spreading out branches bearing
leaves, flowers and fruits. It conducts water, minerals and photosynthates.
Some stems perform the function of storage of food, support, protection
and of vegetative propagation.

5.2.1 Modifications of Stem

The stem may not always be typically like what they are expected to be.
They are modified to perform different functions (Figure 5.6). Underground
stems of potato, ginger, turmeric, zaminkand, Colocasia are modified to
store food in them. They also act as organs of perennation to tide over
conditions unfavourable for growth. Stem tendrils which develop from
axillary buds, are slender and spirally coiled and help plants to climb
such as in gourds (cucumber, pumpkins, watermelon) and grapevines.
Axillary buds of stems may also get modified into woody, straight and
pointed thorns. Thorns are found in many plants such as Citrus,
Bougainvillea. They protect plants from browsing animals. Some plants
of arid regions modify their stems into flattened (Opuntia), or fleshy
cylindrical (Euphorbia) structures. They contain chlorophyll and carry

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Stem modified
into tendril

(a) (b)

Stem modified
into spine

Roots arising
(c) (d) from nodes

Figure 5.6 Modifications of stem for : (a) storage (b) support (c) protection
(d) spread and vegetative propagation

out photosynthesis. Underground stems of some plants such as grass

and strawberry, etc., spread to new niches and when older parts die new
plants are formed. In plants like mint and jasmine a slender lateral branch
arises from the base of the main axis and after growing aerially for some
time arch downwards to touch the ground. A lateral branch with short
internodes and each node bearing a rosette of leaves and a tuft of roots is
found in aquatic plants like Pistia and Eichhornia. In banana, pineapple
and Chrysanthemum, the lateral branches originate from the basal and
underground portion of the main stem, grow horizontally beneath the
soil and then come out obliquely upward giving rise to leafy shoots.

5.3 THE LEAF

The leaf is a lateral, generally flattened structure borne on the stem. It
develops at the node and bears a bud in its axil. The axillary bud later
develops into a branch. Leaves originate from shoot apical meristems and
are arranged in an acropetal order. They are the most important vegetative
organs for photosynthesis.
A typical leaf consists of three main parts: leaf base, petiole and lamina
(Figure 5.7 a). The leaf is attached to the stem by the leaf base and may

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Lamina bear two lateral small leaf like structures called

stipules. In monocotyledons, the leaf base expands
Stipule
into a sheath covering the stem partially or wholly.
In some leguminous plants the leafbase may
become swollen, which is called the pulvinus. The
petiole help hold the blade to light. Long thin flexible
Petiole petioles allow leaf blades to flutter in wind, thereby
Axillary cooling the leaf and bringing fresh air to leaf surface.
Leaf bud
(a) base The lamina or the leaf blade is the green expanded
part of the leaf with veins and veinlets. There is,
usually, a middle prominent vein, which is known
as the midrib. Veins provide rigidity to the leaf blade
and act as channels of transport for water, minerals
and food materials. The shape, margin, apex, surface
and extent of incision of lamina varies in different
leaves.

5.3.1 Venation
The arrangement of veins and the veinlets in the
lamina of leaf is termed as venation. When the
veinlets form a network, the venation is termed as
reticulate (Figure 5.7 b). When the veins run
parallel to each other within a lamina, the venation
is termed as parallel (Figure 5.7 c). Leaves of
(b) (c)
dicotyledonous plants generally possess reticulate
Figure 5.7 Structure of a leaf : venation, while parallel venation is the characteristic
(a) Parts of a leaf of most monocotyledons.
(b) Reticulate venation
(c) Parallel venation
5.3.2 Types of Leaves
A leaf is said to be simple, when its lamina is entire
or when incised, the incisions do not touch the
midrib. When the incisions of the lamina reach up
to the midrib breaking it into a number of leaflets,
the leaf is called compound. A bud is present
in the axil of petiole in both simple and compound
leaves, but not in the axil of leaflets of the compound
leaf.
The compound leaves may be of two types
(Figure 5.8). In a pinnately compound leaf a
(a) (b)
number of leaflets are present on a common axis,
Figure 5.8 Compound leaves :
the rachis, which represents the midrib of the leaf
(a) pinnately compound leaf
(b) palmately compound leaf as in neem.

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In palmately compound leaves, the

leaflets are attached at a common point, i.e.,
at the tip of petiole, as in silk cotton.

5.3.3 Phyllotaxy
Phyllotaxy is the pattern of arrangement of
leaves on the stem or branch. This is usually
of three types – alternate, opposite and (a) (b)
whorled (Figure 5.9). In alternate type of
phyllotaxy, a single leaf arises at each node
in alternate manner, as in china rose,
mustard and sun flower plants. In opposite
type, a pair of leaves arise at each node and
lie opposite to each other as in Calotropis
and guava plants. If more than two leaves
arise at a node and form a whorl, it is called (c)
whorled, as in Alstonia. Figure 5.9 Different types of phyllotaxy :
(a) Alternate (b) Opposite
(c) Whorled
5.3.4 Modifications of Leaves
Leaves
Leaves are often modified to perform modified
Leaf
functions other than photosynthesis. They tendril into spines
are converted into tendrils for climbing as
in peas or into spines for defence as in cacti
(Figure 5.10 a, b). The fleshy leaves of onion
and garlic store food (Figure 5.10c). In some
plants such as Australian acacia, the leaves
are small and short-lived. The petioles in
these plants expand, become green and
synthesise food. Leaves of certain
insectivorous plants such as pitcher plant,
venus-fly trap are also modified leaves.
(a) (b)

5.4 THE INFLORESCENCE

A flower is a modified shoot wherein the shoot

apical meristem changes to floral meristem.
Internodes do not elongate and the axis gets
condensed. The apex produces different Fleshy
kinds of floral appendages laterally at leaves (c)
successive nodes instead of leaves. When a Figure 5.10 Modifications of leaf for :
shoot tip transforms into a flower, it is always (a) support: tendril (b) protection:
solitary. The arrangement of flowers on the spines (c) storage: fleshy leaves

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