[Link].

com © MyMathsCloud

Important background info before you start:

In order to be good at integration in year 2, it is really important to first realise that if you differentiate your
integrated answer, you must get the function you wanted to integrate in the first place
" =

If you differentiate you get

For example
$#
" $ " %$ = +(
4

$! #
Differentiating the answer + ( gives # $ " + 0 = $ " which matches $ "
#

So, never be afraid of year 2 integration. You can check your answer by differentiating and seeing whether you
get what is inside the integral J

Recall your rules for the 4 types of differentiation (your differentiation rules need to be strong as integration
relies on being able to go backwards. It basically asks, given the differentiated function, can you find what the
original function was? The differentiation rules learnt are as follows:
• Harder powers – bring the power down, subtract one from the power and multiply by the derivative of
what is inside the bracket
• Exponentials – copy the exponential and multiply by derivative of the power (and multiply by ln(base)
if base is not e)
%&'()*+()&
• *+ – goes to a fraction which is -./0 (notice how there is no ,- in sight anymore)
• Trig – function changes to the correct trig function and multiply by derivative of the angle

So, it should make sense that for integration that each type has its own rule, just like for differentiation! Very
“loosely” our rules for integration are
• Harder powers – add one to power and divide (similar to year 1 except we have a function inside the bracket)
• Exponentials – copy the exponential
• Fractions – these can be a pain to integrate since they can ,- but they can also many types such as
• bring up and harder powers and many other types amongst other things which you will see soon
• Trig – Ask yourself what function differentiates to this (easiest to just memorise the 6 basic results).
Similar to fractions, trig integration can also be a pain, but for different reasons. The trig function can
become unrecognisable when differentiated and we might need to use identities first before we can
even recognise what function differentiates to the given integral.

I say “loosely ” above since this is not fully done - the equivalent of the pink in the differentiation section is
missing! Let’s call what we have done above ‘half-integrated’. To take into into account the equivalent of the
pink part when integrating), we must check that our half-integrated answer matches what is inside our
integral (if it doesn’t there is some work to do which you’ll see on the following pages)

So far, it should just make sense that

(1 + $ 1 )2 differentiates to 10$(1 + $ 1 )#

This means that

" 10$(1 + $ 1 )# %$ = (1 + $ 1 )2 + (

It is not as easy to spot this tough. Meaning if we are just given ∫ 10$(1 + $ 1 )# %$, how do we instantly know
the answer is (1 + $ 1 )2 + (?

You’ll see how in the following pages J

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Powers
! #$ (%) #(%)" '%
Method:

Step 1: Look if you can take any numbers (products) outside of the integral

Step 2: Locate the function which is a bracket raised to a power (the main function) and ignore whatever function is in front of this (you may be lucky and there may be
nothing here)
%(')ä

Step 3: Apply the power rule of integration - Add one to the power of %(') and divide by this power to get the green.
%(')äãå
(+1
This is not your answer, but a possible answer. We need to do step 4 to decide if something further needs to be done.

ç(~)NOP
Step 4: Differentiate the function from step 3 green to check you get is what is inside the integral which is ,é(-) ,(-)c . If you do then you’re done. If you do
äãå
not then proceed to step 5 (why do we differentiate? Remember the rule of integration. If you differentiate you answer if must give you what you wanted to
integrate). Hindsight: This is why we could ignore ,é (-) in the first place since it pops out when we differentiate.

Step 5: SCALE/correct your answer in step 3 by a number in order to turn your function found in step 4 into the integral. In other words, to scale, ask yourself what you
need to do to your function (what number to multiply or divide by) to get what is inside the integral?

**Important ** Scale/correct with numbers only (not variables) in order to get what is inside of the integral given. You can only multiply and divide to
scale, not add or subtract. If you want to correct with a variable/ letter it means reverse chain rule/recognition/inspection cannot be used and you must use parts
or substitution which you’ll see in another document.

Hindsight: why could we ignore the pink part in step 2? since the derivative ‘pops’ out when we know the rule of integration is that if we differentiate our answer it must
be what is inside the integral so the fact that the correct derivative is there (with a possible number change) is what we need.
Example 1: Easy Example 2: Easy Example 3: Medium Example 4: Medium + Example 5: Medium+
z
z { z |
8(4: − 3) <: 8 3(2: − 4) <: 8 :(: − 1) <: 8 5: @1 + : z <: ∫ 4: z (2 − 4: } )} <:
Step 1: can’t take a number Step 1: take the 3 out Step 1: can’t take a number Step 1: take the 5 out Step 1: take the 4 out
out out å è
3 /(2' − 4)ë 3' 5 / ' (1 + ' è )è 3' 4 / ' è (2 − 4' ê )ê 3'
/(4' − 3)è 3' / '(' è − 1)ì 3'
Step 2: Step 2: Step 2:
ë å è
(2' − 4) Step 2: (1 + ' è )è (2 − 4' ê )ê
Step 2: Step 3: è ì
(' − 1) Step 3: Step 3:
(4' − 3)è (2' − 4)í Step 3: ê î
(1 + ' è )è (2 − 4' ê )ê
Step 3: 8 (' è − 1)î
(4' − 3)ê Step 4: Check 5 3 5
3 8 Step 4: Check 2 3
(2' − 4)ë (2) 5 è Step 4: Check Step 4: Check
Step 4: Check 8
(' − 1)è (2') 3 5
3 5
(4' − 3)è (4) 2 (1 + ' è )åè (2') 3 (2 − 4' ê )èê (−8')
3 = 2(2' − 4)ë 3 5
= 2'(' è − 1)è 2 3
= 4(4' − 3)è does not match function è
= −12' è (2 − 4' ê )ê
inside ∫(2' − 4)ë 3' does not match function å
= 2'(1 + ' è )è
does not match function need to go to step 5 inside
does not match function inside
inside ∫(4' − 3)è 3'
/ '(' è − 1)ì 3' does not match function inside Q
Step 5: å
∫ ' è (2 − 4' ê )R 3'
è )è
need to go to step 5 2(2' − 4)ë versus (2' − 4)ë need to go to step 5 / ' (1 + ' 3' need to go to step 5
need to go to step 5
Step 5: Former is 2 too big so divide Step 5: Step 5:
Q
4(4' − 3)è versus (4' − 3)è step 3 answer by 2 2'(' è − 1)è versus Step 5: −12' è(2 − 4' ê )R versus
(2' − 4)í '(' è − 1)ì P è
2'(1 + ' è )Q versus ' è (2 − 4' ê)ê
Former is 4 too big so divide 8×2 P
step 3 answer by 4 Former is 2 too big so divide ' (1 + ' è) Q

step 3 answer by 2 Former is −12 too big so divide

Don’t forget about the 3
ê Former is 2 too big so divide by step 3 answer by −12
(4' − 3) taken out at the beginning î
3×4 (' è − 1)î step 3 answer 2 (2 − 4' ê )ê
(2' − 4)í 5×2 5
(4' − 3)ê 3:
8×2
;
(1 + ' è )è
ê
3 × −12
= +8 (' è − 1)î
12 = +8 3
10 ×2 Don’t forget about the 4 taken
3(2' − 4)í 2
= +8 out at the beginning
16
Don’t forget about the 5 taken
î
out at the beginning (2 − 4' ê )ê
4? @
5
ê
3 × −12
(1 + ' è )è
5? @
3 î
×2 −(2 − 4' ê )ê
2
= +8
5
ê
5(1 + ' è )è
= +8
3
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Example 6: Hard Example 7: Hard + Example 8
z } (key to understanding
8(: + 3)@: z + 6: + 4<: 8(18: + 12)(3: + 4: + 2) <:
examples 1-7)
8 : z (: z − 1)| <:
Step 1: can’t take a number out Step 1: can’t take a number out Step 1: can’t take a number
out
/(' + 3)A' è + 6' + 4 3' è
/(18' + 12)(3' + 4' + 2) 3' ê

/ ' è (' è − 1)ì 3'

Let’s write the latter as a power
å /(18' + 12)(3' è + 4' + 2)ê 3'
/(' + 3)(' è + 6' + 4)è 3'
Step 2: Step 2:
Step 2: (3' è + 4' + 2)ê (' è − 1)ì
å Step 3:
(' è + 6' + 4)è Step 3:
(3' è + 4' + 2)ì (' è − 1)î
Step 3:
ê 4 5
(' è + 6' + 4)è Step 4: Check Step 4: Check
3 4 5 è
2 (3' è + 4' + 2)ê (6' + 4) (' − 1)ì (2')
4 5
Step 4: Check
3 = (6' + 4)(3' è + 4' + 2)ê
2 (' è + 6' + 4)åè (2' + 6) P
= 2'(' è − 1)ì
3 does not match function inside ∫(' + 3)(' è + 6' + 4)Q 3'
2 does not match function inside
å
= (2' + 6)(' è + 6' + 4)è need to go to step 5 / ' è (' è − 1)ì 3'
P
Step 5:
does not match function inside ∫(' + 3)(' è + 6' + 4)Q 3'
(6' + 4)(3' è + 4' + 2)ê versus need to go to step 5
need to go to step 5 Step 5:
∫(18' + 12)(3' è + 4' + 2)ê 3'
Step 5:
P P / ' è (' è − 1)ì 3'
(2' + 6)(' è + 6' + 4)Q versus ∫(' + 3)(' è + 6' + 4)Q 3' Former is 3 too SMALL so multiply step 3 answer by 3

Former is 2 too big now so divide step 3 answer by 2 2'(' è − 1)ì versus
3(3' è + 4' + 2)ì
' è (' è − 1)ì
ê
4
(' è + 6' + 4)è
3 Former is 2 too big BUT WE
3 = (3' è + 4' + 2)ê + 8 ALSO one power of ' too less.
×2 4
2
We can’t scale/correct with
ê variables/letters (only
(' è + 6' + 4)è numbers)
= +8
3 '(' è − 1)î
5×2

WRONG!!!

This example is to show when

this method doesn’t work and
you need parts or substitution!
Of course. you can use
substitution for all these types,
but why use it when we don’t
need it. It is a bit overkill and if
you really want to be good at
integration you should
understand this and be able to
use reverse chain rule.

The same goes for these two

examples
• ∫ '(2' − 1)î
• ∫ '√' + 1
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Exponentials

! #$ (%) (,(-) '%

Method:

Step 1: Look if you can take any numbers (products) outside of the integral

Step 2: Locate the function which is a bracket raised to a power (the main function) and ignore whatever function is in front of this (you may be lucky
and there may be nothing here)
! 3($)

Step 3: Copy the entire exponential. Why do we do this? We know when we differentiate the exponential is copied so it needs to be the same.
! 3($)
This is not your answer, but a possible answer. We need to do step 4 to decide if something further needs to be done.

Step 4: Differentiate the function from step 3 green to check you get is what is inside the integral. If you do then you’re done. If you
do not then proceed to step 5
(why do we differentiate? Remember the rule of integration. If you differentiate you answer if must give you what you wanted to integrate)

Step 5: SCALE/correct your answer in step 4 by a number in order to give you what is inside the integral. In other words to scale, ask yourself
what you need to do to your function to get what is inside the integral?

**Important ** Scale/correct with numbers only (not variables) in order to get what is inside of the integral given. You can only multiply and
divide to scale, not add or subtract. If you want to correct with a variable/ letter it means reverse chain rule/recognition/inspection cannot
be used and you must use parts or substitution which you’ll see in another document.

Hindsight: why could we ignore the pink part since the derivative ‘pops’ out when we know the rule of integration is that if we differentiate our
answer it must be what is inside the integral.

Example 1: Easy Example 2: Easy Example 3: Medium Example 4: Medium Example 5: Medium+
z~ }~ ~$ } ~% $ |~
8 E <: 8 4E <: 8 :E <: 8 2: E <: 8(:−1)E z~ <:
Step 1: can’t take a number Step 1: take the 4 out Step 1: can’t take a number Step 1: take the 2 out Step 1: can’t take a number out
out out S Q ïì~
4 / eê~ 3' 2 / ' ê e~ 3' /(' − 1)eè~ 3'
è~ ~Q
/ e 3' / ' e 3'
Step 2: Step 2: Step 2:
S Q ïì~
eê~ Step 2: e~ eè~
Step 2: Step 3: ~Q Step 3: Step 3:
D
eè~ eê~ Step 3: e~
S
eè~
Q ïì~

Step 3: Step 4: D~
Q
Step 4:
D è~ 3D ê~ Step 4: 4' ê D ~ ì Step 4:
Step 4: 2'D ~
Q
(4' − 4)D è~
Q ïì~
è~ does not match function
2D does not match function
inside ∫ eê~ 3' does not match function inside inside does not match function inside
does not match function need to go to step 5
~Q ê ~S Q ïì~
inside / ' e 3' /' e 3' /(' − 1)eè~ 3'
è~ Step 5: need to go to step 5 need to go to step 5 need to go to step 5
/ e 3'
3D ê~ versus eê~
Step 5: Step 5: Step 5:
need to go to step 5 Former is 3 too big so divide S
4' ê D ~ ì versus ' ê e~
Q Q Q
2'D ~ versus ' e~ (4' − 4)D è~ ïì~ versus (' −
step answer by 3 Q
Step 5: 1)eè~ ïì~
Former is 2 too big so divide Former is 4 too big so
2D è~ versus eè~ eê~ step 3 answer by 2 divide step 3 answer by 4 Former is 4 too big so divide step
3 3 answer by 4
Former is 2 too big so divide Q S
e~ e~
step 3 answer by 2 Don’t forget about the 4 Q ïì~
taken out at the beginning 2 4 eè~
eè~
Q
4
e~ Don’t forget about the 2
2 eê~ = +8
4: ; 2 taken out at the e è~ Q ïì~
3 beginning = +8
eè~ 4
= +8
2 4 ê~ S
= e +8 e~
3 2: ;
4

S
e~
= +8
2
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Example 6: Example 7: Example 8: Example 9: Example 10:
$
~
8 :E <: 8 2 <: ~
8 3 <: Ä~
8 5(4 )<:}~ ∫ :F3|~ G <:

Step 1: can’t take a number Step 1: can’t take a number Step 1: can’t take a number Step 1: take the 5 out Step 1: can’t take a number out
out out out Q
5 / 4ê~ 3' / ' 3ì~ 3'
~ ~ î~
/ 'e 3' / 2 3' / 3 3'
Step 2: Step 2:
Q
Step 2: Step 2: 4ê~ 3ì~
~ î~ Step 3:
Step 2: 2 3 Step 3:
e~ Step 3: Step 3: 4ê~ 3ì~
Q

Step 3: 2~ 3î~ Step 4: Step 4:

D~ Step 4: Step 4: 4ê~ G( 4 Q
3ì~ × 8' ln 3
~ î~
Step 4: 2 ln 2 3 ln 3
D~ (remember this is not a base does not match function does not match function inside
so we have the extra ln 2) does not match function inside inside Q
does not match function / ' 3ì~ 3'
/ 3î~ 3' / 4ê~ 3'
inside does not match function
inside need to go to step 5 need to go to step 5 need to go to step 5
/ ' eè~ 3'
~
/ 2 3'
Step 5: Step 5: Step 5:
need to go to step 5 need to go to step 5 3î~ ln 3 versus 3î~ 4ê~ G( 4 versus 4ê~ Q Q
3ì~ × 8' ln 3 versus ' 3ì~
Step 5: Step 5: Former is G( 3 too big so divide Former is G( 4 too big so
Former is 8G( 3 too big so divide
D ~ versus ' eè~ 2~ ln 2 versus 2~ step 3 answer by G( 3 divide step 3 answer by
step 3 answer by 8G( 3
G( 4
Former is a power of ' too Former is G( 2 too big so 3î~ Q
small and we can’t divide step 3 answer by G( 2 4ê~ 3ì~
ln 3
scale/correct with ln 4 8ln 3
variables/letters (only 2~ 3î~ Q
numbers) = +8 Don’t forget about the 5 3ì~
ln 2 ln 3 = +8
taken out at the ln 3
'D è~ 2~ beginning
= +8
ln 2 4ê~
5: ;
WRONG!!! ln 4

This example is to show 5 ê~

when this method doesn’t = 4 +8
ln 4
work and you need parts or
substitution! Of course. you
can use substitution for all
these types, but why use it
when we don’t need it. It is a
bit overkill and if you really
want to be good at
integration you should
understand this and be able
to use reverse chain rule.

/ ' è D ê~
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Fractions
Students find fractions tough as fractions can be so many types. There are 5 main types:

`T (h)
1. Is it "# (natural logarithm)? Form ∫
`(h)
H-
To recognize this type: the power in the denominator is (almost always) 1. When you bring the denominator up to the numerator using negative power indices
rule you get a power of−1. By adding one to the power and dividing it, you’ll end up dividing by zero which you can’t do

Method:
Step 1: Look if you can take any numbers (products) outside of the integral

Step 2: Locate the denominator (the main function) and ignore whatever function is in the numerator
%(')

Step 3: Write ln of the denominator. Why do we do this? We know when we differentiate ln the denominator is a copy of the exact argument so it needs to be
the same.
ln %(')
This is not your answer, but a possible answer. We need to do step 4 to decide if something further needs to be done.

Step 4: Differentiate the function from step 3 green to check you get is what is inside the integral. If you do then you’re done. If you do not then proceed to
step 5 (why do we differentiate? Remember the rule of integration. If you differentiate you answer if must give you what you wanted to
integrate)

Step 5: SCALE/correct your answer in step 4 by a number in order to give you what is inside the integral. In other words, ask yourself
what you need to do to your function to get what is inside the integral?

**Important ** Scale/correct with numbers only (not variables) in order to get what is inside of the integral given. You can only multiply and
divide to scale, not add or subtract. If you want to correct with a variable/ letter it means reverse chain rule/recognition/inspection cannot
be used and you must use parts or substitution which you’ll see in another document.

# NOP
2. Is it an easy power year 1 type?∫ % & &% =
&'(

+(#)NOP
3. Is it a bring up and harder power type? Bring the power up and becomes the form ∫ ,) (.) ,(.)* 0. =
&'(

To recognize these : there is a power in the denominator other than

Method: see power type

4. Can I do something first and then it becomes one of the types above?

a) Indices rules to simplify and/or expand brackets

o % . × % / = % .'/
#U
o = % .0/
#V
1 1
o 23456 % 0( .
2# 2
X
W 3 W
o ( √% ) or √% 3 = % W

b) Factorise and maybe cancel first

c) splitting fractions
.'/ . /
= +
4 4 4

d) Partial fractions - recognisable by products in the denominator.

… 7 8
• Form 1 (4#'!)(6#'+) = +
4#'! 6#'+
… 7 8 :
• Form 2 (!#'6)(+#'9)Q = + + (+#'9)Q
!#'6 +#'9
… 7 8#':
• Form 3 = + (not In A Level - only advanced courses have this form)
(!#'6)(+# Q '9) !#'6 +# Q '9

e) Divide first? Recognisable by two or more terms in the denominator and also where we have the matching highest powers in both numerator and denominator or
a higher power in the numerator

5. Is it inverse trig? (this is for further maths students may need to complete the square first)

Either use the inverse trig results below

1 1 =%
1 1 0( =% 1 1 =% 9 &% = tan0( A B + D
9 &% = sin A B + 9− &% = cos 0( A B + D 4; + (=%); 4= 4
;4; − (=%); = 4 ;4; − (=%); = 4

OR use a trig substitution

You may need to rewriting/adapt the fraction in a clever way

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!" − power in denominator is 1
Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Example 4 Example 5 Example 6 Example 7
2 3 1 5 4/ 4/ − 2 W,
Å -/ Å -/ Å -/ Å -/ Å -/ Å % -/ Å -/
/ 4/ 4/ + 3 7/ + 3 2/ % − 4 / −/−6 W, − 1
Denominator is a power 1 Step 1: take the 3 out Step 1: can’t take a number Step 1: take the 5 out Step 1: take the 4 out Step 1: We can take a factor of Step 1: can’t take a number
2 1 out 1 $ 2 out of the numerator, but we out
Å -/ = 2/ #' 3ñ ,$ 5ñ ,$ 4ñ " ,$
4$ 1 7$ + 3 2$ − 4 don’t really need to here /$
/ ñ ,$ ñ $ ,$
If we tried to add one to the 4$ + 3 4$ − 2 / −1
Step 2: ñ " ,$
power and divide by it we Step 2: Step 2: $ −$−6
$* 4$ Step 2: 7$ + 3 2$ " − 4 Step 2:
would get and we can’t Step 3: Step 3: Step 3:
B 4$ + 3 Step 2: /$ − 1
divide by 0 ln 4$ Step 3: ln (7$ + 3) ln(2$ " − 4) $" − $ − 6 Step 3:
Step 4: ln(4$ + 3) Step 4: Step 4: Step 3: ln(/ $ − 1)
4 Step 4: 7 4$ ln($ " − $ − 6) Step 4:
Step 1: take the 2 out 4$ 4 7$ + 3 2$ " − 4 Step 4: /$
1 4$ + 3 2$ − 1 /$ − 1
2 ñ ,$ This does not match function inside
$ This does not match function This does not match $" −$−6
inside This does match function function inside $ This perfectly matches the
ñ " ,$
Step 2: 1 inside 1 2$ − 4 This does match function inside function inside
ñ ,$ 1 ñ ,$
$ 4$ 7$ + 3 4$ − 2 /$
ñ ,$ need to go to step 5 ñ " ,$ ñ $ ,$
Step 3: 4$ + 3 $ −$−6 / −1
ln $ need to go to step 5 need to go to step 5
Step 4: need to go to step 5 Step 5: need to go to step 5 We do not need to go to step
1 #$ $
Step 5: Step 5: versus " 5
# ( O ( "$ "'# "$ '#
$ versus Step 5: versus Step 5:
#$ #$ # ( O$C! O$C! "$'( #$'"
versus Former is 4 too big so divide step 3 versus " ln(/ $ − 1)
This perfectly matches the #$C! #$C! $ "'$'% $ '$'%
Former is 4 too big so divide Former is 7 too big so answer by 4
function inside
1 step 3 answer by 4 Former is 4 too big so divide divide step 3 answer by 7 Former is 2 too small so
ñ ,$ step 3 answer by 4 ln (2$ " − 4) multiply step 3 answer by 2
$
ln 4$ ln(7$ + 3) 4
We do not need to go to 4 ln(4$ + 3) 7 2 ln(4$ + 3)
Don’t forget about the 4 taken out
step 5 4
Don’t forget about the 3 taken Don’t forget about the 5 at the beginning 2 ln |4$ + 3| + C
out at the beginning 1 taken out at the
Don’t forget about the 2 ln |4$ + 3| + C
4 beginning ln(2$ " − 4)
taken out at the beginning 4ò ô
ln 4$ 4
though 3j k ln(7$ + 3)
4 5j k
7 ln |2$ " − 4| + C
2 ln $
3
= ln |4$| + C 5
= 2 ln |$| + C 4 = ln |7$ + 3| + C
7
Year 2 - Bring Up and Power Year 2 – Hidden Power
Example 8 Example 9 Example 10 Example 11 Example 12 Example 13 Example 14
2 4/ 6/ + 9 , 1 ln /
5/ % W
Å -/ Å -/ Å -/ Å % -/ Å# -/ Å √ln / -/ Å -/
(3/ − 4)) (2/ % − 1)% √/ & + 1 (/ + 3/)) √W , + 1 / /
Bring the power up first Bring the power up first Bring the power up first Bring the power up first Bring the power up first Write as Write as
( ( 1 ( 1
ñ 2(3$ − 4)'& ,$ ñ 4$(3$ − 4)'& ,$ ñ 5$ "($ ! + 1)'" ,$ ñ(6$ ñ / $ (e$ + 1)! ,$ ñ (ln $)" ,$ ñ (ln $) ,$
$ $
+ 9)($ " + 3$)'& ,$
Now proceed as in the Now proceed as in the harder Now proceed as in the Now proceed as in the harder Now proceed as in the harder Now proceed as in the harder
harder powers type powers type harder powers type Now proceed as in the powers type powers type powers type
# !
harder powers type (/ $ (78$)" (78$)"
+ 1)!
(3$ − 4)'# (2$ " − 1)'# (
2
2ò ô 4ò ô ($ ! + 1)" 4 3
−4 × 3 −4 × 4 5ö õ 2($ " + 3$)'# 3
1 2
×3 −4 ( 1
2 Note: we need the at the = (ln $)" + C
1 1 3 # $ 2
= − (3$ − 4)'# + C = − (2$ " − 1)'# + C 10 " ( 1 = (/ $ + 1)! + C front since it’s the derivative
6 4 = − ($ " + 3$)'# + C 4
= ($ + 1)" + C 2 the pops out
3 2 !
= (78$)" + C
3
Take a step back for a second before continuing. You may now be wondering two things
• How can we recognise the difference between ln and power? Why can’t we bring up and power always? Let’s see…
5
Å -/
7/ + 3
Å 5(7/ + 3)#' -/
(7/ + 3)B
Ñ = 5É
0
We cannot divide by zero! Hence is the denominator has power 1 it is likely ′Üa′ is involved.
*,
• What can’t use we ‘Üa’ for something like ∫ (%," " -/ ?
#')
This cannot be ′Üa′ since the derivative of the denominator needs to be in the numerator and we can’t scale/correct with /’s. Here we would have ln(2/ % − 1)% and checking gives
2(2/ % − 1)%
(2/ % − 1)%
It is not possible to scale to get what is inside the integral!
Something first
• split up (1 terms in the denominator)
• divide first using long division (can only use if same highest power in numerator and denominator or higher in numerator)
• factorise first and cancel
• partial fractions (can only use if the highest power is in the denominator). Note: you may also need to factorise first.
• clever re-writing of a fraction
• inverse trig
Split first Split first Divide first Divide first Divide first Factorise First Factorise First
Example 15 Example 16 Example 17 Example 18 Example 19 Example 20 Example 21
9/ + 6 (/ + 4)(/ − 1) 2/ − 1 /% 1 / % + 4/ %+4
Å -/ Å -/ Å -/ Å -/ Å -/ Å -/ 9 &%
/ 3√/ /+4 /+1 1 + W, /+4 2% ; + 5% − 12
9$ 6 $ " + 3$ − 4 Dividing gives Dividing gives Dividing gives Factorise Factorise the denominator
ñ9 + : ,$ ñ ,$
$ $ first
√$ 2$ − 1
=2−
9 /% 1 1 W, ñ
$($ + 4)
,$
$+4 $+4 =$−1+ =1− $+4
6 /+1 $+1 1 + W, 1 + W, ($ + 4)
ñ 99 + : ,$ Cancel ñ ,$
$ $ " 3$ 4 ($ + 4)(2$ − 3)
ñu + − v ,$ 9
√$ √$ √$ ñ 92 − : ,$ 1 WY ñ $ ,$ Cancel
Integrate each term $+4 ñ 9$ − 1 + : ,$ ñ u1 − v ,$ 1
$+1 1 + WY ñ ,$
! ( ( 2$ − 3
9$ + 6 ln $ + C ñ 9$ " + 3$ " − 4$ '" : ,$ 2$ − 9 ln |$ + 4| + C 1 "
2$ − $ + ln |$ + 1| + C $ − 78 |1 + / $ | + C $ +C 1
Integrate each term 2 ln |2$ − 3| + C
2

2 & !
$ " + 2$ " − 8√$ + C
5
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Factorise First Partial Fractions Partial Fractions Divide Then Partial Factorise Then Partial
Fractions Fractions
Example 22 Example 23 Example 24 Example 25 Example 26
1 5 1 /% 3% + 5
9 &% 9 &% 9 &% Å -/ 9 &%
√% ; − 4% + 4 (% − 1)(3% + 2) (% + 2)(% − 1); /% − 4 3% ; + 9% + 6

Factorise the denominator Use partial fractions Dividing gives Use partial fractions
first Use partial fractions
$" 4
1 3 =1+ "
ñ9 − : ,$ $" − 4 $ −4 3$ + 5 3$ + 5
$ − 1 3$ + 2 P P P →
1 $ " + 3$ + 2 ($ + 1)($ + 2)
ñ ( ,$ ∫ A #';
Z
− Z
#0(
+ R
(#0()Q
B &%
(($ − 2)")" 4
= ln |$ − 1| − ln |3$ + 2| + C ñ 91 + : ,$
Simplify $" − 4 2 1
1 1 1 ñ9 +
$+1 $+2
: ,$
1 = ln |/ + 2| − ln |/ − 1| − +Y
ñ ,$ 9 9 3(/ − 1)
$−2 Use partial fractions
' ' = 2ln |$ + 1| + ln($ + 2| + C
ln |$ − 2| + C ∫ 1 + (,#%) − (,>%) -/

= $ + ln |$ − 2| − ln |$ + 2| + C

Inverse Trig (Further Maths)

1 1 1 5 1 4' + 19
/ 3' / 3' / 3' / 3' / 3' / 3'
√9 − 'è √25 − 4' è 1 + (' + 2)è A25 − 4(' − 3)è ' è + 6' + 13 ' è + 12' + 41
See A Level Further Maths See A Level Further Maths See A Level Further Maths See A Level Further Maths See A Level Further Maths See A Level Further Maths
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Trig
1. Is it just a direct result?
/ ,é (-) JKLM ,(-) H-
Method:
Step 1: Look if you can take any numbers (products) outside of the integral

Step 2: Locate for the trig function (the main function) and ignore whatever function is in the numerator
JKLM ,(-)

Step 3: Ask yourself what the trig function swaps to (just like with differentiation). If you know a function differentiates to it then you can integrate it!
• ∫ M )(%) sin M(%) &% = − cos M(%)
• ∫ M )(%) cos M(%) &% = sin M(%)
• ∫ M )(%) sec ; M(%) &% = tan M(%)
• ∫ M )(%) sec M(%) tan M(%) &% = sec M(%)
• ∫ M )(%) cosec M(%) cot M(%) &% = − cosec M(%)
• ∫ M )(%) cosec ; M(%) &% = − cot M(%)

***If you do not have one of these exact 6 functions go to step 2***

Step 4: Differentiate the function from step 3 green to check you get is what is inside the integral. If you do then you’re done. If you
do not then proceed to step 5

Step 5: SCALE/correct your answer in step 4 by a number in order to give you what is inside the integral. In other words, ask yourself
what you need to do to your function to get what is inside the integral?

**Important ** Scale/correct with numbers only (not variables) in order to get what is inside of the integral given. You can only multiply and
divide to scale, not add or subtract. If you want to correct with a variable/ letter it means reverse chain rule/recognition/inspection cannot
be used and you must use parts or substitution which you’ll see in another document.

2. Is it a previous type that happens to have trig in it? (trig with harder power, trig with exponential or trig with !")
Ø Harder power Form ∫ , é(-) ,(-)c H- − remember sinè %(') ≡ (sin %('))è
Ø Exponential Form ∫ , é (-) Q `(h) H-
` T (h)
Ø Natural Logarithm Form ∫ H-
`(h)

3. Is it an identity first
o Easy reciprocal or quadratic identity and then becomes a direct result from 1 or an easy !"
o Is it a harder identity such as double angle
o Is it factor formulae (hint to recognize: Look for a product that isn’t a result or a double angle sin result
where the angles don’t match)

4. Is it parts?

5. Is it a substitution?

Goal: To become on of the 6 basic types: If it is not we need to use an identity (or maybe just substitution or parts) until it becomes one of the 6 easy results
Trig
One of the 6 results
Å sin 4/ -/ Å 5cos 2/ -/ Å sec 3/ tan 3/ -/ Å 5 sec % 4/ Å / cos / % -/ Å 4/ % cos(2/ &) -/ Å / sin / -/

Step 1: can’t take a Step 1: take the 5 Step 1: can’t take a Step 1: can’t take a number Step 1: can’t take a number out Step 1: take the 4 out Step 1: can’t take a number out
number out out number out out
ñ $ cos $ " ,$ 4 ñ $ " cos(2$ ! ) ,$ ñ $ sin $ ,$
ñ sin 4$ ,$ 5 ñ cos 2$ ,$ ñ sec 3$ tan 3$ ,$ ñ$ cos $ " ,$
Step 2: Step 2:
Step 2: Step 2: Step 2: Step 2: cos $ " cos(2$ !) Step 2:
sin 4$ cos 2$ sec 3$ tan 3$ cos $ " Step 3: Step 3: sin $
Step 3: Step 3: Step 3: Step 3: sin $ " sin (2$ !) Step 3:
− cos 4$ sin 2$ sec 3$ sin $ " Step 4: Step 4: − cos $
Step 4: Step 4: Step 4: Step 4: 2$ cos $ " 6$ " sin (2$ ! ) Step 4: Check
4sin 4$ 2 cos 2$ 3 sec 3$ tan 3$ 2$ cos $ " sin $
does not match function inside does not match function
does not match function does not match does not match function does not match function inside does not match function inside
ñ $ cos $ " ,$
inside function inside inside inside
ñ $ " cos(2$ !) ,$ ñ $ sin $ ,$
ñ sin 4$ ,$ ñ cos 2$ ,$ ñ sec 3$ tan 3$ ,$ ñ$ cos $ " ,$
need to go to step 5 need to go to step 5
need to go to step 5 need to go to step need to go to step 5
5 need to go to step 5 need to go to step 5 Step 5: Step 5: Step 5:
Step 5: 2$ cos $ " versus $ cos $ " 6$ " sin (2$ ! )
4sin 4$ versus sin 4$ Step 5: Step 5: Step 5: versus sin $ versus $ sin $
2 cos 2$ 3 sec 3$ tan 3$ 2$ cos $ " versus $ cos $ " Former is 2 too big so divide by 2 $ " cos(2$ !)
Former is 4 too big so versus versus sec 3$ tan 3$ Former is a power of $ too less. We can’t
divide by 4 cos 2$ Former is 2 too big so divide cos $ " Former is 6 too big so divide scale/correct with variables/letters (only
Former is 3 too big so by 2 2 by 6 numbers)
− cos 4$ Former is 2 too big divide by 3 sin(2$ ! )
4 so divide by 2 cos $ " 1 6 This example is to show when this method
cos 2$ sec 3$ = cos $ " + C
2 2 doesn’t work and you need parts!
1 2 3 Don’t forget about the 4
= cos 4$ + C
4 1 taken out at the beginning
Don’t forget about 1 = cos $ " + C
= sec 3$ + C 2 sin(2$ ! )
the 5 taken out at 3 4ò ô
6
the beginning
cos 2$
5j k 2
2 = sin(2$ !) + C
5 3
= cos 2$ + C
2
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Trig – use an identity first to become one of the results above
Trig and exp Trig to a power with the derivative in-front
sin / ]
sin / sec % /
Å sin / W JKG , -/ Å sec % / e[\I , Å [ãa / cos & / -/ Å sec % / tan / -/ Å 5 tan / sec * / -/ Å -/ *
-/
cos % / Å -/
B √cos / √tan /

Trig and ln Tan and cot Sec and cosec

sin / cos 2/ sin / YZ[/ 4 sin / cos /
Å
1 + YZ[/
-/ Å
sin 2/ + 4
-/ Å
cos % /
-/ Å
4 − 8 sin% /
-/ 9 tan % &% 9 cot % &% 9 sec % &% 9 OP63O % &%

Trig to a power WITHOUT the Trig to a power without the derivative

derivative infront even powers of sin and cos
Odd powers of sin and cos
9 6Q51 % &% 9 cos 1 % &% 9 cos ; % &% 9 cos ; 4% &% 9 sin; 2% &% 9 cos < % &% ∫(cos % − sin %); &% 9(sin %

+ cos %); &%

Powers of tan and cot Odd powers of sec and cosec

1 1 1
Å tan% / -/ Å cot % 5/ -/ Å tan* / -/ Å tan& / -/ Å cot & / -/ Å -/ Å -/ Å -/ Å(sec / + tan /)% -/ Å(cot / − tan /)% -/
cos % / [ãa/YZ[/ sin% 2/

Longer Identities Product of 2 trig Products of.2 trig functions

functions (different angles)
(same angle) factor formulae
cos 2/ sin / 4 sin / YZ[/ 1 − 2 sin% / √1 + cos 2/
Å -/ Å -/ Å -/ Å -/ Å -/ Å 4 cos 2/ sin 2/ -/ Å 4 cos / sin 2/ -/
cos % / tan / 4 − 8sin% / 1 + 2 sin / cos / sin / sin 2/
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Integration Recap
Type 1:Easy Powers Type 3: Exponentials
Type 2: Harder Powers (numbers to a power of $)
%"WX
! %" ⟹ " #(%)"WX
*+, ! #$ (%)-#(%). ⟹ ! "! ($)&"($) ⟹ &"($)
“add one to the power and divide by it “ *+,

Type 4: Fractions – Process of Elimination Type 5: Trigonometry

Students find integrating fractions tough as these can be so many 8 Q ′(6) STU Q(6) = −VWS Q(6)
types. Go through the following process of elimination:
8 Q ′(6)VWS Q(6) = STU Q(6)
1. Is it "# (natural logarithm)?
,é (-) 8 Qå (6) SXV+ Q(6) = YZU Q(6)
/ H-
,(-)
8 Qå (6) SXV Q(6) YZU Q(6) = SXV Q(6)
To recognize these : entire denominator is power a 1
8 Qå (6) VWSXV Q(6) VWY Q(6) = −VWSXV6 Q(6)
2. Is it an easy power year 1 type?
9 % & &% =
% &'( 8 Qå (6) VWSXV+ Q(6) = −VWY 6 Q(6)
5+1

Process of Elimination
3. Is it a bring up and harder power type?
M(%)&'( Goal: To become on of the 6 basic types: If it is not we need to use an
9 ,) (.) ,(.)* 0. = identity (or maybe just substitution or parts) until it becomes one of the
5+1
6 easy results.
To recognize these : entire denominator is not a power a 1
1. Is it just a direct result?
4. Can I do something first and then it becomes
/ ,é (-) JKLM ,(-) H-
one of the types above?
a) Indices rules and or/expand brackets • ∫ M ) (%) sin M(%) &% = − cos M(%)
o ' ù × ' û = ' ùãû • ∫ M ) (%) cos M(%) &% = sin M(%)
~U • ∫ M ) (%) sec ; M(%) &% = tan M(%)
o = ' ùïû
V ~ • ∫ M ) (%) sec M(%) tan M(%) &% = sec M(%)
ê ê
o RDS(T ' ïå . • ∫ M ) (%) cosec M(%) cot M(%) &% = − cosec M(%)
î~ î
W ü W
X • ∫ M ) (%) cosec ; M(%) &% = − cot M(%)
o ( √' ) or √' ü = ' W
***If you do not have one of these exact 6 functions go to 2***
b) Factorise and maybe cancel first
2. Is it a previous type that happens to have trig
c) split up fractions (if one term in denominator)
ùãû ù û
in it?
= + Ø Trig with harder power ∫ , é (-) ,(-)c H-
† † †
remember sinè %(') ≡ (sin %('))è
d) Partial fractions - recognisable by products in the Ø Trig with exponential ∫ , é (-) Q `(h) H-
` T(h)
denominator. Ø Trig with !" ∫ H-
… ¢ £ `(h)
• Form 1 (†~ã|)(°~ãç) = +
†~ã| °~ãç
•
…
Form 2 (|~ã°)(ç~ã§)Q =
¢
|~ã°
+
£
ç~ã§
•
+ (ç~ã§)Q 3. Is it an identity to use and then becomes a
• Form 3
…
=
¢
+
£~ã• direct result from 1 or an easy "#
(|~ã°)(ç~ Q ã§) |~ã° ç~ Q ã§
(watch out for even and odd powers of sin and cos)
(not In A Level)

e) Divide first? 4. Is it factor formulae

Recognisable by two or more terms in the Hint to recognize: Look for a product that isn’t a result or a
denominator and also where we have the matching double angle sin result where the angles don’t match
highest powers in both numerator and denominator
or a higher power in the numerator 5. Is it parts?

f) Rewriting/adapting fraction in a clever way 6. Is it substitution?

g) Is it a direct inverse trig result
(only for further maths)

5. Is it a substitution or parts?
Note: Substitution can be done for all types if you know
what substitution to use, but to be really good at
integration you should only use substitution when
necessary
① Is it one of the standard Integration Types Checklist: Hints for every type:
• First take any constants out of integral
forms? (must be a product to take out)
• Don’t forget to write +K after every
Exponentials Natural log (()) no indefinite integral (integral w/out limits)
yes !) ∫ $" %& = $" %
1)∫ &% = D@ |%| • You can always use a substitution for
# every type instead (works for all types of
0) ∫ ,
'#$)
&% = ,
% '#$)
2)∫
% %
&% = F) 4% + 5 ② Is it a fraction? 8(%) integrals). Let ; = 8(%)
' '#$) '
Powers: & • Differentiate answers to check if you’ve
"# !"# ,. .. ∫ ,1# &% ,. . ∫ &%
! ,#21 done the integration correctly
!) ∫ $% &% = , ) ≠ −!

no
ye
+8(#)
!$% 7) ∫ 8′(%),+(#) &% = ,+(#) 7) ∫ &% = F) |8(%)|

s
+(#)
,. .. / 0%& &%, / 0%(% + 3)(% − 0)&% # $ $, 9&
,. .. ∫ 3% , &% ,. . ∫
-#
&%, ∫ &%
% # $ 21 9& $, ③ Is it a ”harder trigonometry type”
3) ∫ 4# &% = 4#
! % ('#$))!"# 56 '
2)∫(4% + 5) &% = % Bring up and Power
' (!$%) C) ∫ 4.#$) &% = 4.#$)
& . 7! '
,. .. ∫ 6(0% − !) &% %
3) ∫ #" +# = ∫ #2! +# = 2!$% , * ≠ 3
##"$%
,. .. ∫ 4-#2, &%
!"#
yes
no
+ # % - , #
7) ∫ 8′(%)(8(%))! &% = 6) ∫ 8′(%)4+(#) &% = 4+(#) e.g.∫
#&
+# , ∫
&#!
+
,
+#
!$% 7! ' #"$%
& +#
,. .. ∫ "# #, + % , ∫ &'( # ()*- # +# # $ $% +8(#)
+# ⟹ ∫ /′(#)(/(#))2!+# =
,. .. ∫ 7% 4 &% %) ∫
+#" 2!$%
% -#! :( o An easy identity and then becomes ④ Is it a product of 2 unrelated
:. <. ∫ (,#21)& +#, ∫ +# , ∫ ( PQ
Basic Trigonometry
0#' $% : 2;
standard form: distinct factors?
∫ &'C, #+# = ∫(&'(:&, # − 3)+#
3) ∫ 456 # +# = −&'( #
%
Inverse Trigonometry ∫ C8*, # +# = ∫((:&, # − 3)+#
%) ∫ 456(8# + 9) +# = − &'( 8# + 9 % % )#
' 1)∫ ()*2%
+# = %
∫ >?!! # +# = ∫ &'(:&,# +#
no
:. <. ∫ 456 %# +# and '! 2 )# ! ) '
∫ 456(=# + 3) +#

ye
; %
3)∫ /′(#)456 /(#) +# = −&'( / # :. <. ∫ PQ ∫ .@>! # +# =∫ (:&,# +#

s
<2= )

:. <. ∫ ?# ()* "#, +# and ∫ #, 456(=#-) +# 2)∫

%
+# = −
%
&'(2%
)# o A harder identity and then becomes
'! 2 )# ! ) '
=) ∫ @'( # +# = ()*# 2,
:. < ∫ +#
standard form:
⑤ By parts ⑥ Substitution
% /2%0#! ∫ ()*- #+# = ∫ 456 # (3 − @G4 , #) +# (turns the integral a very
5)∫ @'( 8# + 9 +# = ()*
8# + 9 % % )#
'
3)∫ ! +# ⇒ C8*2% = ∫ ()* # − ()*#&'(,# +#
:. <. ∫ &'( "# +# and ∫ &'((%# + ") +# ' $()#)! ') ' simple standard form)
%
%2.@> ,#
∫ ()*, # +# = ∫ +# &;
A) ∫ /8 # &'( / # +# = ()*/(#) :. <. ∫ +# , ;G − / G &%
1$,&#!
, .@> ,#$% &% Substitutions to use:
:. <. ∫ "# &'((%#,) +# and ∫ #, &'((%#- − %) +# Hyperbolics (Further Maths only) ∫ &'( # +#== ∫ +#
, Powers:
,
7)∫ 4B@ # +# = C8* # . % % )# , %2.@> ,# , To know which H
4) +# = ()*S2% ∫ ()*1 # +# = ∫ ()*,# = ∫ +# ∫… (8(%))! &%
% '! $ )# ! ) ' , to choose: u is
8)∫ 4B@ ,(8# + 9) +# = C8* (8# + 9) ; , .@> ,#$% , Let ; = 8(%)
' :. <. ∫
PQ ∫ &'(1 # = ∫ &'(,# = ∫ +# what comes first
:. <. ∫ 4:&, %# +# and ∫ 4:&, (=# + 3) +# <2=) , Exponentials
5)
% %
+# = &'(S 2% )# in LIATE
D) ∫ /′(#)4B@ , /(#) +# = C8* /(#) )# ! 2'! ) ' ∫ 3? &'( # ()* %# +#=
%
∫(&'( "# + &'( #) +# ∫… ,(+(#)) &%
:. <. ∫ # 4:&, %#, +# and ∫ #,4:&,(=#- + 3) +# :. <. ∫
;
PQ
, Ln Let ; = 8(%)
3E) ∫ 4B@ # C8* # +# = (:& # 6)
%
+# =
%
<2=)
C8*S 2% )# WATCH OUT for: InvTrig Fractions
… …
') ' ∫ (+(#))# &% <= ∫ (+(#))! &%
33) ∫ 4B@ 8# + 9 C8* (8# + 9) +# =
%
'
(:&(8# + 9)
'! 2 )# !
:. <. ∫
;
PQ
o Trig to a power (this is a standard form Algebra
:. <. ∫ 4:& %# C8* %# +# and ∫ 4:& (%# − 3) C8*(%# − 3) +# type mentioned already under in Let ; = 8(%)
3%) ∫ /8 F 4B@ / # C8* /(#) +# = (:&/(#)
<2=)
powers, but it is so often forgotten):
Trig Trigonometry
:. <. ∫ F 4:& (%#,) C8*(%#,) +# and ∫ #, 4:& (#-) C8*(#-) +#
Note: If none of the types above then either
*+ & * &
,
%& +, ∫
-(")
! %&
Exp ∫… >?@ 8(%) &%
you must first do the following and then - " Let ; = 8(%)
3") ∫ &'(:& # @GH # +# = −&'(:& # check back above >?! # >9.$ #
e.g. Roots
3=) ∫ &'(:& 8# + I @GH(8# + 9) +# = − &'(:& 8# + 9
%
'$) ' ) ∫ IJ) % K<I- % &%, ∫ * &%,
A'! # …
' o Split fractions using rule
.
= .+. .@> #
∫ %,1# &% ∫ +(#) &% <= ∫… 8(%)&%
:. <. ∫ &'(:& %# &'C %# +# and ∫ &'(:&("# + 3) &'C("# + 3)+# /#$0 #$1 (#2%) o Fractions (this is a standard form type
∫ # +#, ∫ - # +# ∫ % IJ)0% &% Let ; = ⋯
15)∫ /8 # &'(:& /(#)&'C /(#) +# = −&'(:& / # mentioned already under in fraction,
o Factorise and cancel first
natural ln, but it is so often forgotten): ∫ %, >?@ % &% OR
:. <. ∫ =# &'(:& #, &'C #, +# and ∫ #,&'(:& #- &'C #- +# "+$
, ! $ )" 8′(%) # ., = /(#) ⟺ . = /((#)
3A) ∫ @G4:& # +# = −&'C # %" + &" − (% ∫ %$ F)0%&%
% / &% second sub is better
17) ∫ @G4:&,(8# + 9) +# = − &'C 8# + 9 o Divide first
8(%) ∫ IJ) 0% ,1#
'
#$, …
:. <. &'(:&, %# +#
∫ and ∫ &'(:&, (=# − 3) +# ∫ #2% +# &'( %# ∫ D@ % &% ∫ '± &%
8 , T +# (+(#))
3J) ∫ / # @G4:& /(#) +# = −&'C /(#) o Use partial fractions ()* %# + = ∫ 4=K LM@ % &% Let ; = 8(%)
:. <. ∫ #&'(:&, (=#,) +# and ∫ #,&'(:&, (K#-) +# (may need to factorise the denominator or
()* # OR
divide first) T C8*#+# = T +#
& &#! 20#2- #! 2&#20 &'( # Note: each time we ; = 4 ± 8(%)
Extra common results: ∫ (#2%)(-#$,) +# , ∫ +# , ∫ +# use parts we ”kill” a
#2% #! 2% #! 2#2,
.@> # second sub is better
∫ C8* # +# = L*|(:& #| o Complete the square in the denominator ∫ &'C#+# = ∫ >?! # +# power of the
∫ @GH # +# = L*|()* #| % % algebra type. We
∫ #! $0#$%- +# =∫ #$- ! $1 +# o where you need to simplify a lot such Note: All Function 8 %
∫ (:& # +# = L*| (:& # + C8* #| sometimes have to
o Adapt the numerator of the fraction by as types on the left can use
∫ @'(:& # +# = −L* |&'(:&# + &'C #| splitting into 2 fractions do parts more than
>?! # %$.@> ,# %2, >?!! # once substitution instead: Let
%&'#(
∫ &!'#$&'%# )"=∫
%&'$) )
− &!'#$&'%# )" ∫ A'! # +# , ∫ >?! # >?! ,# +# , ∫ %$, >?! # .@> # +#
&!'#$&'%# ; = 8(%)