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SEVENTH EDITION

Traditions &
Encounters
Encounters
A Global Perspective
on
on the
the Past
Past
Jerry H. Bentley
Herbert F.
Herbert F. Ziegler
Ziegler
Heather E.
Heather E. Streets-Salter
Streets-Salter
Craig Benjamin
Craig Benjamin

Copyright 2021 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.
 18: The Americas in the
Age of Independence

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 1803 Louisiana Purchase
1804–1806 Lewis and Clark Expedition
1812–1814 War of 1812
1829–1852 Rule of Juan Manuel de Rosas in Argentina
1838–1839 Trail of Tears
1846–1848 Mexican-American War
1848 Seneca Falls Conference
1849 California Gold Rush
1850s La Reforma in Mexico
1861–1865 U.S. Civil War
1867 Establishment of the Dominion of Canada;
French troops withdraw from Mexico
1867–1877 Reconstruction in the United States
1869 Completion of the transcontinental railroad line in the United States
CHRONOLOGY

1876 Battle of the Little Bighorn

1876–1911 Rule of Porfirio Díaz
1885 Completion of the Canadian Pacific Railroad; Northwest Rebellion
1890 Massacre at Wounded Knee
1910–1920 Mexican revolution
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 The Building of American States
During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries,
almost all the territories in the Western Hemisphere won
their independence from European colonial powers.
The United States embarked on a westward push that
brought most of the temperate regions of North America
under U.S. control.
Canada built a federal state under British Canadian
leadership.
The varied lands of Latin America built smaller states that
often fell under the sway of local military leaders.

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 The United States:
Westward Expansion and Civil War 1
In the 1780s, leaders in the United States drafted a
constitution.
• Entrusted general issues to a federal government.
• Reserved authority for local issues for individual states.
• Provided for the admission of new states and territories.

By the mid-1800s, almost all adult white men were eligible

to participate in the political affairs of the republic.
Residents began to expand rapidly to the west.
• Manifest destiny: the idea that the United States was
destined, even divinely ordained, to expand across the
continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific and beyond.
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 The United States:
Westward Expansion and Civil War 2
Westward expansion brought settlers and government
forces into conflict with indigenous peoples.
• Resisted efforts to push them from their ancestral lands and
hunting grounds.
• Indian Removal Act of 1830: legislation intended to move all
Native Americans west of the Mississippi River onto marginal
lands called “Indian Territory” (Oklahoma).
• Trail of Tears: the 800-mile migration of the Cherokees from
the eastern woodlands to Oklahoma (1838–1839).
• Battle of the Little Bighorn: defeat of an army under the
command of Colonel George Custer by the Lakota Sioux and
their allies in southern Montana in 1876.

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 The United States:
Westward Expansion and Civil War 3
Native Americans ultimately lost the war against the forces
of U.S. expansionism.
• Weaponry employed against them included cannons and
deadly, rapid-fire Gatling guns.
• Ever greater numbers of settlers and military reinforcements
arrived.

Wounded Knee: a last symbolic conflict that took place in

1890 at Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota.
• The cavalry slaughtered more than two hundred men,
women, and children with machine guns.

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 The United States:
Westward Expansion and Civil War 4
Westward expansion also generated tension between the
United States and Mexico.
• Mexican-American War: 1846–1848; U.S. forces sent troops
into a disputed zone along the Rio Grande and then inflicted a
punishing defeat on the Mexican army.
• By the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848), the U.S. took
Texas north of the Rio Grande, California, and New Mexico.

Expansion also aggravated tension between regions.

• States north of Delaware had abolished slavery, and divisions
between “slave” and “free” states hardened.
• Westward expansion raised the question of whether settlers
could extend slavery to newly acquired territories.
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 MAP 18.1 Westward expansion of the
United States during the nineteenth century
Note the large land claims ceded by Britain, France, and Mexico.

Access the text alternative for slide images. 1 Access the text alternative for slide images. 2
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 The United States:
Westward Expansion and Civil War 5
Beginning with the Missouri Compromise of 1820, a series
of political compromises attempted to maintain a balance
between slave and free states.
Abraham Lincoln: an explicitly sectional candidate to the
presidency, committed to the idea of free soil—that is,
territories without slavery.
His election ignited war between the states (1861–1865).
• Although slavery stood at the center of the conflict, other
issues were also key, such as states’ rights versus the federal
government’s authority.

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 The United States:
Westward Expansion and Civil War 6
Eleven southern states withdrew from the Union in 1860
and 1861, affirming their support for states’ rights.
• Slavery and the cultivation of cotton had isolated the southern
states from economic development in the rest of the U.S.
• Northerners viewed secession as an illegal insurrection; they
fought against slavery but also for their emerging industrial
society and expansion based on free labor.
• The first two years of the war ended in stalemate.

Emancipation Proclamation: freed enslaved people in the

states that had rebelled, making the abolition of slavery an
explicit goal of the war.

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 The United States:
Westward Expansion and Civil War 7
Ultimately the northern states prevailed, after the
bloody battle at Gettysburg in July 1863 turned the tide.
The victory had enormous consequences.
• Ensured the United States would remain politically united.
• Enhanced the authority of the federal government.

The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution,

ratified in 1865, completely abolished slavery throughout
the United States.

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 The Canadian Dominion:
Independence without War 1
Canadian independence came gradually as Canadians and
the British government agreed on general principles.
Fears of U.S. expansion helped submerge differences
between the two dominant European ethnic groups, the
British Canadians and the French Canadians.
• Imperial officials made concessions to the French population,
recognizing the Roman Catholic church, French civil law, and
governance through appointed councils of local elites.
• British Canadians were Protestants, followed British law, and
governed through elected representatives.
• After the American revolution, British loyalists enlarged the
size of the English-speaking community.
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 The Canadian Dominion:
Independence without War 2
War of 1812: the U.S. declared war on Britain, and Canada
formed one of the front lines of the conflict.
• Canadian forces repelled U.S. incursions.

After the war, Canada experienced an era of rapid growth;

but French Canadians found themselves threatened by the
influx of English-speaking migrants.
• Between 1840 and 1867, British imperial governors defused
tensions by expanding home rule and permitting the provinces
to govern their own internal affairs.
• Durham Report: issued in 1839 by John George Lambton, who
advocated self-government for a united Canada.

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 The Canadian Dominion:
Independence without War 3
British North America Act of 1867: joined Quebec, Ontario,
Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick, recognizing them as the
Dominion of Canada.
• Dominion signaled the continuing connection of Canada to the
British government.
• Each province had its own seat of government.
• The federal government had an elected House of Commons
and appointed Senate.
• The Dominion had won control over all Canadian internal
affairs, while Britain retained jurisdiction over foreign affairs
until 1931.

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 The Canadian Dominion:
Independence without War 4
John A. Macdonald: the first prime minister of Canada,
who moved to incorporate all of British North America into
the Dominion.
• Negotiated the purchase of the Northwest Territories.
• Persuaded other provinces.
• Oversaw construction of a transcontinental railroad,
completed in 1885.

While maintaining ties to Britain and struggling to forge an

identity distinct from that of the U.S., Canada developed as
a culturally diverse yet politically unified society.

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 MAP 18.2 The Dominion of Canada in the nineteenth century
Note the provinces that make up the modern state of Canada and the dates in which they were
incorporated into the Dominion.
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 Latin America: Fragmentation
and Political Experimentation 1
In most newly independent states of Latin America, creole
elites established republics with written constitutions.
Leaders struggled, however, to create a machinery of
government that would lead to political and social stability.
• Creole elites dominated and effectively prevented mass
participation; furthermore, they were divided into different
camps based on ideology and religion.

One thing they did agree on was pushing aside indigenous

peoples to claim land for agriculture and ranching.
• By the 1870s, had forced indigenous peoples to retreat to
marginal lands or to assimilate.
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 Map 18.3 Latin America in the nineteenth century
The date shown is the year of independence. Note the many states that emerged from
the independence movements early in the century.
Access the text alternative for slide images.
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 Latin America: Fragmentation
and Political Experimentation 2
Division and discord helped caudillos, or regional military
leaders, come to power in much of Latin America.
• Appealed to populist sentiments and exploited the discontent
of the masses.

Juan Manuel de Rosa: from 1829 to 1852, ruled an

Argentina divided between the cattle-herding gaucho
(cowboy) society and the urban elite of Buenos Aires.
• Restored order, but did so by making terror a tool of the
government.
• Ruled as a despot.

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 Latin America: Fragmentation
and Political Experimentation 3
Independent Mexico experienced a succession of
governments, from monarchy to republic to caudillo rule.
Antonio López de Santa Anna: ruled intermittently after
the Mexican-American War (1846–1848).
Benito Juárez: president and leader of a liberal reform
movement in the 1850s, La Reforma, which aimed to limit
the power of the military and the Roman Catholic church.
• The Constitution of 1857 guaranteed universal male suffrage
and other civil liberties.
• Conservative elites, however, led a determined opposition to
political, social, and economic reform.
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 Latin America: Fragmentation
and Political Experimentation 4
In 1861, Juárez sought to lessen Mexico’s financial woes by
suspending loan payments to foreign powers.
• France’s Napoleon III sent an invasion force in 1862,
beat back by Mexican forces on May 5—Cinco de Mayo.
• Although Napoleon III sent more troops and proclaimed the
creation of a Mexican empire, he ultimately accepted defeat.

Juárez managed to restore a semblance of liberal

government following the French invasion, but Mexico
remained beset by political divisions.

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 Latin America: Fragmentation
and Political Experimentation 5
The Mexican revolution (1910–1920) was a bitter and
bloody conflict.
• Middle-class Mexicans joined with peasants and workers to
overthrow the powerful dictator Porfirio Díaz.
• Emiliano Zapata and Francisco (Pancho) Villa: charismatic
men of agrarian backgrounds who organized massive armies
fighting for tierra y libertad—land and liberty.
• The revolution came to an end soon after government forces
ambushed and killed Zapata in 1919.
• A new constitution did address some of the concerns of the
revolutionaries, providing inspiration for the future.

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 American Economic Development
During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, two
principal influences shaped economic development in the
Americas:
• Mass migration.
• Foreign financial investment.

The different states of the Americas experienced these

influences differently and reacted in different ways.

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 Migration to the Americas 1
In the United States and Canada, gold lured many.
Outnumbering prospectors, however, were millions of
European and Asian migrants who made their way to
factories, railroad construction sites, and plantations.
• Foods, religious beliefs, and cultural traditions migrated with
them to the Americas.

European migrants were attractive to industrialists seeking

labor at low wages.
• In the 1850s 2.3 million Europeans migrated to the United
States, and the volume of migration continued to surge.

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 Migration to the Americas 2
Asian migrants contributed to the construction of an
American transportation infrastructure.
• Between 1852 and 1875 some two hundred thousand Chinese
migrated to California alone.
• Most traveled on indentured labor contracts.

Migrants to Latin American lands mostly worked on

agricultural plantations.
• Italians, for example, sought work in Argentina and Brazil.
• Some, known as golondrinas (“swallows”), traveled back and
forth annually.
• Asian laborers also worked on plantations.

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 Economic Expansion in the United States 1
British investment capital in the United States proved
crucial to the early stages of industrial development.
• Helped establish a textile industry.
• Funded entrepreneurs, who opened coal and iron mines, built
iron and steel factories, and constructed railroad lines.

Railroads decisively influenced U.S. economic development.

• Provided cheap transportation for commodities and travelers.
• Spurred the development of other industries because they
required coal, wood, glass, and rubber.
• New managerial skills were developed.

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 Economic Expansion in the United States 2
Railroads led to drastic changes in the ways people
organized, controlled, and thought about space and time.
• Broadscale land clearing.
• Environmental damage through soil erosion and pollution.
• Railroad time: divided the continent into four zones in which
all railroad clocks read precisely the same time.

Led by railroads, the economy expanded rapidly.

• Inventors designed new products: electric lights, telephones,
typewriters, photography and motion pictures.
• Large-scale labor unions also emerged, and confrontations
sometimes grew violent.

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 Canadian Prosperity 1
Canadian leaders also took advantage of British capital.
• In the early nineteenth century, Britain paid relatively high
prices for Canadian agricultural products and minerals.

National Policy: a program of economic development

begun after the establishment of the Dominion in 1867.
• Attract migrants, protect nascent industries through tariffs,
and build national transportation systems.
• Canadian Pacific Railroad: completed in 1885; opened the
western prairie lands to commerce.
• Canada experienced booming agricultural, mineral, and
industrial production.

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 Canadian Prosperity 2
Population surged, in part through migration.
• From Asia and especially from Europe.

Economic expansion took place on the foundation of wheat

production and the extraction of rich mineral resources.
• Industrialists also tapped Canadian rivers for the hydroelectric
power necessary for manufacturing.

Although Canada remained wary of its powerful neighbor

to the south, U.S. economic influence gradually grew.
• By 1918, Americans owned 30 percent of all Canadian
industry.

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 Latin American Investments 1
Latin American states did not undergo industrialization or
enjoy economic development like the U.S. or Canada.
• Both Central and South America offered European investors
attractive prospects for extracting raw materials.
• Europeans supplied the investment for the infrastructure to
bring raw materials to ports.
• Elites profited handsomely.

British investors were particularly active.

• Cattle and sheep ranching in Argentina.

European migrants came to dominate urban

labor—another form of foreign influence.
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 Latin American Investments 2
Latin American elites did make attempts to encourage
industrialization in a few places, with limited success.
In Mexico under Porfirio Díaz, railroad tracks and telegraph
lines connected all parts of the country.
• Production of mineral resources surged; and steel, glass,
chemical, and textile industries were established.
• Mexico City was transformed.
• The profits, however, did not support continuing
development, instead going to Mexican elites and foreign
investors.

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 Latin American Investments 3
Latin American economies expanded rapidly in the late
nineteenth century, driven by exports for foreign markets.
Because foreign investors controlled the markets and their
infrastructure, however, they were able to keep prices for
commodities low.
Latin American economies were thus subject to decisions
made in the interests of foreign investors.

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 American Cultural and Social Diversity
Much of the allure of the Americas derived from their vast
spaces and diverse populations.
That same diversity also provided abundant fuel for conflict
between ethnic groups, social classes, and those segregated
into groups based on race and gender.

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 Societies in the United States 1
By the late nineteenth century, the U.S. had become the
most culturally diverse land of the Western Hemisphere.
• Indigenous peoples, Euro-Americans, African Americans, and
growing numbers of migrants from Europe and Asia.

As Euro-American settlers expanded to the west,

indigenous peoples were pushed onto reservations.
• In the latter half of the nineteenth century, laws and reforms
were undertaken to forcibly assimilate tribes to American
culture and destroy Native American cultural traditions.
• For example, the deliberate extermination of the buffalo and
the economy of the Plains Indians.

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 Societies in the United States 2
The Civil War ended slavery, but it did not bring about
equality for formerly enslaved African Americans.
• Reconstruction: 1867–1877, a period in which northern forces
sent armies of occupation to the southern states to ensure the
civil rights of formerly enslaved people.
• Black and white citizens elected biracial governments.
• After Reconstruction, however, a violent backlash soon
dismantled the program’s reforms.
• Southern states fashioned a rigidly segregated society that
deprived African Americans of educational, economic, and
political opportunities.

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 Societies in the United States 3
Even before the Civil War, a small but growing women’s
movement had emerged.
• Seneca Falls Convention: 1848; feminists demanded equal
political and economic rights for U.S. women.
• New opportunities emerged slowly and mainly benefited
white women rather than women of color.

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 Societies in the United States 4
Between 1840 and 1914 some twenty-five million European
migrants arrived.
• Introduced new foods, music, dances, holidays, sports, and
languages.
• Distaste for foreigners frequently resulted in hostility.
• Migrants and their families tended to concentrate in certain
districts, such as Little Italy.

Concerns about growing numbers of migrants with

different cultural and social traditions eventually led to the
exclusion of new arrivals from Asia.
• From China in 1882 and from Japan in 1907.

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 Canadian Cultural Contrasts 1
In Canada, British and French settlers each viewed
themselves as the land’s founding people.
This cleavage masked much greater diversity.
• Settlers displaced indigenous peoples, who remain a
significant minority of Canada’s population today.
• Slavery was legal until 1833; and as in the U.S., free Black
people were segregated and isolated.
• Chinese migrants, attracted by gold rushes and work on the
railway, lived mostly in segregated Chinatowns.
• Between 1896 and 1914, waves of migrants came from
Britain, the United States, and eastern Europe.

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 Canadian Cultural Contrasts 2
Despite the diversity of the population, communities
descended from British and French settlers dominated.
• Conflict between the two was the most prominent source of
ethnic tension.

In the 1870s and 1880s, British Canadians pushing west

threatened indigenous peoples and métis—individuals of
mixed European and indigenous ancestry.
• Louis Riel: a métis who emerged as leader of the métis and
indigenous peoples of western Canada.
• Northwest Rebellion: an 1885 insurrection subdued by
Canadian forces, who executed Riel for treason.

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 Ethnicity, Identity, and Gender
in Latin America 1
Latin American societies were inclined toward hierarchical
distinctions based on ethnicity and color.
• At the top were the creoles of European ancestry.
• At the bottom, indigenous peoples, formerly enslaved people,
and their descendants.
• In between, various groups of mixed ancestry.

Large-scale migration brought added cultural diversity in

the nineteenth century.
• Some formed distinctive communities, as in the case of Indian
migrants to Trinidad and Tobago.

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 Ethnicity, Identity, and Gender
in Latin America 2
Latin American intellectuals seeking cultural identity saw
themselves as either heirs of Europe or products of the
American environment.
• Domingo Faustino Sarmiento: Argentine president who
identified with Europe, despised the rule of caudillos, and
worked toward a society based on European values.

Gauchos: “cowboys,” often of mixed race.

• Anyone who adopted gaucho ways became a gaucho.
• Led independent and self-sufficient lives that appealed
broadly to many Latin Americans.

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 Ethnicity, Identity, and Gender
in Latin America 3
Even more than in the U.S. and Canada, male domination was
a central characteristic of Latin American society.
Machismo: a social ethic that honored male strength, courage,
aggressiveness, assertiveness, and cunning.
Women did carve spaces for themselves outside or
alongside the male world of machismo.
• Exerted great influence in the marketplace.
• Served in the Mexican revolution, some becoming soldaderas
(female soldiers or supporters of soldiers).

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 MAP 18.1 Westward expansion of the United States during the
nineteenth century 1 - Text Alternative
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The details are given as follows:

United States 1783 includes parts of North America encompassing the states
of Maine in 1820, VT in 1971, NH, MASS, CT, NY, Penn, Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama 1819, Miss, Tennessee 1796,
Kentucky 1972, Illinois 1818, IND in 1816, Ohio 1803, Michigan in 1837 and
Michigan in 1846.
Ceded by Great Britain 1818 included the central northern region
encompassing part of Minnesota territory.
Annexation of Texas 1845 included the central south regions encompassing El
Paso, Houston San and Antonio In Texas.
Ceded by Mexico 1848 included the southwestern region of North America
encompassing parts of New Mexico territory, Utah Territory and California.

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 MAP 18.1 Westward expansion of the United States during the
nineteenth century 2 - Text Alternative
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Louisiana Purchase in 1803 included the central regions of North America

encompassing Indian territory, Ark in 1821, Missouri in 1821, Iowa in 1846
and parts of Minnesota territory.
Treaty with Spain 1819 included the southeastern regions of North America
encompassing Florida.
Agreement with Great Britain 1846 included the northwestern regions of
North America encompassing Seattle and Portland in Oregon territory.
8. Gadsden Purchase 1853: Represented by dark green color, after Gadsden
purchase, US included the southwestern region of New Mexico territory.

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 MAP 18.2 The Dominion of Canada in the nineteenth century -
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The details are given as follows:

Before 1851 Canada included northeastern parts of St. John's in New found
land, Charlottetown, Halifax, Quebec, parts of Montreal and Toronto.
1851–1871 Canada included northeastern parts of Fredericton, Montreal and
Toronto.
1871–1901: Canada included parts of Vancouver, Calgary, Saskatoon, Regina
and Winnipeg including parts adjoining Ottawa.

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 Map 18.3 Latin America in the nineteenth century - Text
Alternative
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The details are given as follows:

United provinces of Central America between 1823–38 included
encompassing Guatemala, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, BR Honduras,
Honduras and Mosquito coast.
Republic of Colombia between 1819–30 were included encompassing Caracas
in Venezuela, Bogotá in New Granada, Colombia and Quito in Equador.
Mexico, 1867 included encompassing Mexico city in Mexico.

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