Unit 15: Inheritance
1. Introduction to Genetics
● Inheritance (Heredity): This is the process by which characteristics
are transferred from parents to offsprings.
● Genetics: The branch of biology that deals with the study of
inheritance, variations, and the factors controlling them.
● Genes: Every cell contains instructions for making characters, present
in DNA molecules as chemical codes called genes. Genes use these
instructions to produce specific proteins, which in turn make up the
cell's characters.
2. Chromosomes and Genes
● Chromosomes: These are thread-like structures present in cells, first
discovered by Waldeyer in 1876.
● Location: In prokaryotes, they are not enclosed in a nuclear
membrane, whereas in eukaryotes, they are found within the nucleus.
● Chromatin Material: When a cell is not dividing, its genetic material
exists as scattered fine threads called chromatin. In prokaryotes,
chromatin is made only of DNA, but in eukaryotes, it is composed of
both DNA and proteins.
● Nucleosomes: Long molecules of DNA wrap around a bundle of
histone proteins to form structures called nucleosomes, which look
like "beads on a string".
● Chromosome Structure: During cell division, chromatin coils into
compact chromosomes. A chromosome consists of two identical
halves called chromatids, which are held together at a point called the
centromere.
● Gene Function: A gene is the fundamental physical and functional
unit of heredity, determining specific characters like eye color or hair
texture.
3. Gene and Allele
● Alleles: The alternative or different forms of a specific gene are called
its alleles.
● Genotype: The specific combination of alleles in a gene pair.
○ Homozygous: When the gene pair has the same alleles.
○ Heterozygous: When the gene pair contains different alleles.
● Phenotype: The observable physical outcome or characteristic of a
genotype.
4. Dominant and Recessive Alleles
● Dominant Allele: In a heterozygous state, the allele that masks the
expression of the other allele. It is represented by a capital letter.
● Recessive Allele: The allele that is masked and not expressed. It is
represented by a lowercase letter.
5. Role of a Gene in Protein Synthesis (The Central Dogma)
● Transcription: The two strands of DNA unzip, and one strand acts as
a template to create a single strand of messenger RNA (mRNA).
● Translation: The mRNA leaves the nucleus and attaches to a
ribosome. Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries specific amino acids to the
ribosome, linking them in sequence to form a protein.
6. Mendel's Work on Inheritance
● Background: Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk known as the "Father
of Genetics," performed fundamental inheritance experiments
between 1856 and 1864.
● The Garden Pea: Mendel chose the pea plant because it is easy to
grow, pest-resistant, has a short generation time of three months, and
features pure breeding strains with seven distinct characteristics.
● Law of Segregation (Monohybrid Cross): * Mendel crossed
pure-breeding tall plants (TT) with short plants (tt).
○ The first generation F1 were all tall hybrids (Tt), showing that
tallness is the dominant trait.
○ When the F1 generation self-pollinated, the F2 generation showed
a 3:1 ratio (75% tall to 25% short), proving that the recessive trait
was only hidden, not lost.
○ The Law States: The two alleles for a trait separate during gamete
formation, so each gamete receives only one allele.
● Law of Independent Assortment (Dihybrid Cross):
○ Mendel studied the inheritance of two traits simultaneously, like
seed shape and seed color.
○ He crossed plants with round yellow seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled
green seeds (rryy).
○ The F1 offspring were all round and yellow (RrYy).
○ When F1 self-fertilized, the F2 generation produced four
phenotypes in a 9:3:3:1 ratio (9/16 round yellow, 3/16 round green,
3/16 wrinkled yellow, 1/16 wrinkled green).
○ The Law States: Alleles of different gene pairs separate
independently of one another during gamete formation.
7. Dominance Relations
● Complete Dominance: One allele completely hides the effect of the
other in a heterozygous condition (e.g., Tall 'T' completely masks dwarf
't').
● Incomplete Dominance: Both alleles interact to show a blended or
intermediate phenotype. For example, crossing a Red (RR) Japanese 4
O'clock plant with a White (rr) one produces Pink (Rr) offspring. The F2
ratio is 1 Red : 2 Pink : 1 White.
● Co-dominance: Different alleles are completely expressed
side-by-side in a heterozygous state. The human ABO blood group is
an example, where alleles I A and I b are dominant over i, but when
present together, they both express to create the AB blood type.
8. Variation and Evolution
● Genetic Recombination & Crossing Over: During prophase of
meiosis, the chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange
genes (crossing over). This creates new gene combinations in
gametes, leading to variations.
● Variations: These are the differences in traits between individuals of
the same species, which are necessary for natural selection.
○ Sources of Variation: Include mutations (changes in DNA
nucleotide sequence), crossing over, and random fertilization.
Environmental conditions can also play a role.
● Continuous Variations: Deal with a wide range of phenotypes with
many intermediate forms between two extremes (e.g., human height,
skin color, weight). These are usually controlled by many genes.
● Discontinuous Variations: Show only a few clear-cut phenotypes
with no intermediate values (e.g., human blood groups, attached vs.
free earlobes). These are controlled by a few genes.
9. Evolution and Natural Selection
● Organic Evolution: Defined as the gradual change where advanced
organisms descend from simpler, pre-existing forms over time.
● Theory of Natural Selection: Proposed by English naturalist Charles
Darwin as the mechanism for evolution. It states that individuals with
better variations reproduce more successfully than those without.
● Steps of Natural Selection: 1. Overproduction: Organisms produce
more offspring than the environment can support. 2. Competition:
Limited resources force organisms to compete to survive. 3. Natural
Selection: Individuals with variations better suited to the environment
survive and pass those traits to their offspring. 4. Speciation:
Continuous natural selection over generations eventually results in the
formation of new species.
● Example in Insects: The evolution of pesticide-resistant insects. A
pesticide kills most pests, but a few survivors with resistant variations
reproduce, leading to a largely resistant population in future
generations.
10. Artificial Selection and Crop Improvement
● Artificial Selection: Humans (instead of nature) deliberately select
plants and animals with desirable traits to reproduce.
● Impact: This process causes rapid evolutionary changes, resulting in
specific breeds of domestic animals (sheep, cows, hens) and
improved crop varieties (cultivars) like wheat, rice, and apples.