TCEM 1102 Notes : Volume1 14th /08 /2014

Definition of a Computer

A computer is a programmable machine that receives input (data), stores and manipulates data,
and provides output (information) in a useful format.

OR: A computer is an electronic machine, operating under the control of instructions stored in
its own memory that can accept data, manipulate the data according to specified rules, produce
results, and store the results for future use. Computers process data to create information. Data is
a collection of raw unprocessed facts, figures, and symbols. Information is data that is
organized, meaningful, and useful.

Futher understanding of Data and Information?

 Data
o Is input from the user or other sources.
o May be numbers, text, sound, images, etc.
o May be unintelligible ( i.e unrecognizable)
o May be commands or instructions.
 Information
o Is output from a computer
o Is formatted and understandable
o Can be printed text, graphics, images, etc.
o Can be sounds or video.
How does a computer covert data into information?
 A collection of instructions inform of a computer program is loaded into the main
memory of the computer.
 When executed the program can convert data into information.
Generally a

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and
processes it under the control of set of instructions (called program), gives the result (output),
and saves it for the future use.

Computer - Types
Computers can be broadly classified by their speed and computing power.

[Link]. Type Specifications

1 PC (Personal It is a single user computer system having moderately powerful

 Computer) microprocessor

It is also a single user computer system which is similar to personal

2 WorkStation
computer but has more powerful microprocessor.

It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of supporting

3 Mini Computer
hundreds of users simultaneously.

It is a multi-user computer system which is capable of supporting

4 Main Frame hundreds of users simultaneously. Software technology is different
from minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast computer which can execute hundreds of

5 Supercomputer
millions of instructions per second.

PC (Personal Computer)

A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user.
PCs are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU
on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop
publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the
most popular use for personal computers is playing games and surfing Internet.

Although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, these systems are normally
linked together to form a network. In terms of power, now-a-days High-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics capability as low-end
workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.

Personal computers are available in two models. These are:

1. Desktop PCs
2. Tower PCs

A desktop personal computer is most popular model of personal computer. The system unit of
the desktop personal computer can lie flat on the desk or table. In desktop personal computer, the
monitor is usually placed on the system unit.

Another model of the personal computer is known as tower personal computer. The system unit
of the tower PC is vertically placed on the desk of table. Usually the system unit of the tower
model is placed on the floor to make desk space free and user can place other devices such as
printer, scanner etc. on the desktop. Today computer tables are available which are specially
designed for this purpose. The tower models are mostly used at homes and offices.
Workstation

Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,

software development, and other such types of applications which require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities.

Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, large amount of
RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a
mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless
workstation, comes without a disk drive.

Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC,
Workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a
local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.
Minicomputer

It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Minicomputers are smaller in size, have lower processing speed and also have lower cost than
mainframe. These computers are known as minicomputers because of their small size as
compared to other computers at that time. The capabilities of a minicomputer are between
mainframe and personal computer. These computers are also known as midrange computers.

The minicomputers are used in business, education and many other government departments.
Although some minicomputers are designed for a single user but most are designed to handle
multiple terminals. Minicomputers are commonly used as servers in network environment and
hundreds of personal computers can be connected to the network with a minicomputer acting as
server like mainframes, minicomputers are used as web servers. Single user minicomputers are
used for sophisticated design tasks.

Mainframe

Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds or
even thousands of users simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs concurrently and
supports many simultaneous execution of programs
Mainframe computers are also large-scale computers but supercomputers are larger than
mainframe. These are also very expensive. The mainframe computer specially requires a very
large clean room with air-conditioner. This makes it very expensive to buy and operate. It can
support a large number of various equipments. It also has multiple processors. Large mainframe
systems can handle the input and output requirements of several thousand of users. For example,
IBM, S/390 mainframe can support 50,000 users simultaneously. The users often access then
mainframe with terminals or personal computers. There are basically two types of terminals used
with mainframe systems. These are:
i) Dumb Terminal
Dumb terminal does not have its own CPU and storage devices. This type of terminal uses the
CPU and storage devices of mainframe system. Typically, a dumb terminal consists of monitor
and a keyboard (or mouse).

ii) Intelligent Terminal

Intelligent terminal has its own processor and can perform some processing operations. Usually,
this type of terminal does not have its own storage. Typically, personal computers are used as
intelligent terminals. A personal computer as an intelligent terminal gives facility to access data
and other services from mainframe system. It also enables to store and process data locally.

The mainframe computers are specially used as servers on the World Wide Web. The mainframe
computers are used in large organizations such as Banks, Airlines and Universities etc. where
many people (users) need frequent access to the same data, which is usually organized into one
or more huge databases. IBM is the major manufacturer of mainframe computers. The examples
of mainframes are IBM S/390, Control Data CYBER 176 and Amdahl 580 etc.

Supercomputer

Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic
design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

A Supercomputer is the most powerful and fastest, and also very expensive. It is used to process
large amount of data and to solve the complicated scientific problems. It can perform more than
one trillions calculations per second. It has large number of processors connected in parallel. So
parallel processing is done in this computer. In a single supercomputer thousands of users can be
connected at the same time and the supercomputer handles the work of each user separately.
Supercomputer ares mainly used for:

 Weather forecasting.
 Nuclear energy research.
 Aircraft design.
 Automotive design.
 Online banking.
 To control industrial units.

The supercomputers are used in large organizations, research laboratories, aerospace centers,
large industrial units etc. Nuclear scientists use supercomputers to create and analyze models of
nuclear fission and fusions, predicting the actions and reactions of millions of atoms as they
interact. The examples of supercomputers are CRAY-1, CRAY-2, Control Data CYBER 205 and
ETA A-10 etc.
Computer System
A Computer system is a group of hardware components and associated software, designed and
assembled to perform a specific function or group of functions.

Computer System Concepts.

Understanding a computer system is important to the effective use and management of
computers. As business professionals we ought to know the basic facts and concepts about
computer systems so that we are better informed and become more productive users of the
available computer resources. A computer system consists of the following:

(i) Hardware devices

(ii) Software devices and

(iii) the people who make it work.

Computer system hardware refers to the physical components that make the system. The hardware
component of a computer system can be categorized as one of the following:

 Input devices
Input devices as the system hardware, converts data into electronic machine-readable form for
direct entry or through a telecommunications network into a computer system. Examples of some
input devices of a computer system include: keyboard, touch screens, light pens, electric mice,
optical scanners, voice input etc.

 Processing devices
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the brain of a computer system is the main processing
component of a computer system. In microcomputers, it is the main microprocessor. One of the
CPU’s major components is the Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU) that performs the arithmetic and
logic functions required in computer processing. Other components of the CPU are the Control
Unit (CU) and the primary storage unit/memory.

 Output devices
The output devices convert electronic information produced by the computer system into human
intelligible form for presentation to end-users. Examples of output devices include; video display
units, audio response units, printers etc.

 Storage devices
 The storage function of a computer system is to store data and programme instructions needed for
processing. Storage devices include:

 The primary storage unit (main memory)

 Secondary storage devices (magnetic disk and tape units, optical disks)
 The System Unit
The system unit is made up of many smaller components; some of the most important of these the
central processing unit (CPU), main memory, secondary memory, cache memory, ROM, mother
board and the case.

BASIC HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

Note that all types of computers follow a same basic logical structure and perform the following
five basic operations for converting raw input data into information useful to their users.

[Link]. Operation Description

1 Take Input The process of entering data and instructions into the computer system

Saving data and instructions so that they are available for processing as and
2 Store Data
when required.

Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order to convert

3 Processing Data
them into useful information.

Output The process of producing useful information or results for the user, such as a
4
Information printed report or visual display.

Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above operations are
5
workflow performed.
Computer - Input Devices
The input unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into computer. This unit
makes link between user and computer. The input devices translate the information into the form
understandable by computer.

Following are few of the important input devices which are used in a computer:

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
 Optical Character Reader(OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in inputting data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

[Link] Keys Description

These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which
1 Typing Keys
generally give same layout as that of typewriters.

It is used to enter numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it

2 Numeric Keypad consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration
used by most adding machines and calculators.

The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are
3 Function Keys arranged in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has
unique meaning and is used for some specific purpose.

These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four

directional arrow keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert,
4 Control keys
Delete, Page Up, Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).

Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter,

5 Special Purpose Keys
Shift, Caps Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.
 Mouse

Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to
enter text into the computer.

Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive

 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor position on a monitor screen. It is
a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in
a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing(CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item
or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in
a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding
signal to the CPU.
Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer for
further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into the
digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer

Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet because it converts graphics and
pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for doing fine works of
drawing and image manipulation applications.

Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in digital form. The microphone
is used for various applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing
music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader(OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text optically character by
character, converts them into a machine readable code and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a
hand held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar
code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to which
bar code reader is connected.
Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially
used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.

Computer - Output Devices

The Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the information from
computer. This unit is a link between computer and users. Output devices translate the
computer's output into the form understandable by users.

Following are few of the important output devices which are used in a computer.

 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter

 Printer
Monitors

Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat- Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be
placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines
vertically. There are some disadvantages of CRT:

 Large in Size
 High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer, graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

 Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. Example are plasma panel and LED(Light-Emitting Diodes).
 Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD(Liquid-
Crystal Device)

Printers

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers:

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers

The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which is then pressed on
the paper.

Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy

 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types

 Character printers
 Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer

In the market one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come
out to form a character that is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

 Inexpensive
 Widely Used

 Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel

Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower
name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices which require a few letters to be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality

 The fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy

 More expensive than DMP

Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

These are of further two types

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of drum is divided
into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a paper width of 132
characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on track. The different
character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One rotation
of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per
minute.

Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer

In this printer, chain of character sets are used so it is called Chain Printer. A standard character
set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

 Noisy

Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time so they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types

 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers.
 They are not noisy.

 High quality.

 Support many fonts and different character size.

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages
 Very high speed
 Very high quality output

 Give good graphics quality

 Support many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

 Expensive.
  Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing.

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Colour printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable

Disadvantages
 Expensive as cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer

Computer –Storage devices

Computer - Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions. Computer memory
is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells. Each
location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024=65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of three types

 Cache Memory
 Primary Memory/Main Memory

 Secondary Memory

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a
buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program
which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from
disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.

Advantages

The advantages of cache memory are as follows:

 Cache memory is faster than main memory.

 It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.

 It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.

 It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of cache memory are as follows:

 Cache memory has limited capacity.

 It is very expensive.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer is currently working.
It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is generally made up of
semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast as registers. The data and instruction
required to be processed reside in main memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and
ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

 These are semiconductor memories
 It is known as main memory.

 Usually volatile memory.

 Data is lost in case power is switched off.

 It is working memory of the computer.

 Faster than secondary memories.

 A computer cannot run without primary memory.

Secondary Memory

This type of memory is also known as external memory or non-volatile. It is slower than main
memory. These are used for storing data/Information permanently. CPU directly does not access
these memories instead they are accessed via input-output routines. Contents of secondary
memories are first transferred to main memory, and then CPU can access it. For example : disk,
CD-ROM, DVD etc.

Characteristic of Secondary Memory

 These are magnetic and optical memories
 It is known as backup memory.

 It is non-volatile memory.

 Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.

 It is used for storage of data in a computer.

 Computer may run without secondary memory.

 Slower than primary memories.

 Computer - Random Access Memory
RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program
and program result. It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working. As
soon as the machine is switched off, data is erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a
power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers.
RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types

 Static RAM (SRAM)

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being supplied.
However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix
of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM
need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.

Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is used as cache
memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of the Static RAM

 It has long life
 There is no need to refresh

 Faster

 Used as cache memory

 Large size

 Expensive

 High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is done
by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are
made up of memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM
 It has short data lifetime
 Need to be refreshed continuously

 Slower as compared to SRAM

 Used as RAM

 Lesser in size

 Less expensive

 Less power consumption

Computer - Read Only Memory

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

The ollowing are the various types of ROM

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM chip there are
small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is
not erasable.

EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz
crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use
the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about
ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In
EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one
byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is
flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM

The advantages of ROM are as follows:

 Non-volatile in nature
 These cannot be accidentally changed

 Cheaper than RAMs

 Easy to test

 More reliable than RAMs

 These are static and do not require refreshing

 Its contents are always known and can be verified

Computer - Motherboard
The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a computer together. A
motherboard connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card, sound card, and
other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can be considered as the backbone of a
computer.
Features of Motherboard

A motherboard comes with following features:

 Motherboard varies greatly in supporting various types of components.

 Normally a motherboard supports a single type of CPU and few types of memories.

 Video Cards, Hard disks, Sound Cards have to be compatible with motherboard to
function properly

 Motherboards, cases and power supplies must be compatible to work properly together.

Popular Manufacturers
 Intel
 ASUS

 AOpen

 ABIT

 Biostar

 Gigabyte

 MSI

Description of Motherboard

The motherboard is mounted inside the case and is securely attached via small screws through
pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to connect all of the internal components. It
provides a single socket for CPU whereas for memory, normally one or more slots are available.
Motherboards provide ports to attach floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via ribbon
cables. Motherboard carries fans and a special port designed for power supply.

There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards, sound cards
and other expansion cards can be connected to motherboard.

On the left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect monitor, printer, mouse,
keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports which allow
compatible devices to be connected in plug-in/plug-out fashion for example, pen drive, digital
cameras etc.

Computer - Memory Units

Memory unit is:

 the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit.

 that in which storage capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.

Following are the main memory storage units:

[Link]. Unit Description

A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active

1 Bit (Binary Digit)
state of a component in an electric circuit.

2 Nibble A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit which can
3 Byte
represent a data item or a character.

A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits

processed as a unit which varies from computer to computer but
is fixed for each computer.
4 Word
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word
length and it may be as small as 8 bits or may be as long as 96
bits. A computer stores the information in the form of computer
words.
Few higher storage units are following

[Link]. Unit Description

1 Kilobyte (KB) 1 KB = 1024 Bytes

Megabyte
2 1 MB = 1024 KB
(MB)

3 GigaByte (GB) 1 GB = 1024 MB

4 TeraByte (TB 1 TB = 1024 GB

5 PetaByte (PB) 1 PB = 1024 TB

Processing Devices
Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit)
CPU consists of the following features:

 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.

 It stores data, intermediate results and instructions(program).

 It controls the operation of all parts of computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit

 Control Unit

 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results. This unit supplies information to
the other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main
memory or primary storage or Random access memory(RAM).

Its size affects speed, power and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are two
types of memories in the computer. Functions of memory unit are:
  It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.

 It stores final results of processing before these results are released to an output device.

 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main memory.

Control Unit

This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but does not carry out any actual data
processing operations.

Functions of this unit are:

 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of
a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.

 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.

 It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.

 It does not process or store data.

ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely

 Arithmetic section
 Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,

multiplication and division. All complex operations are done by making repetitive use of above
operations.

Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as comparing, selecting, matching
and merging of data.

Computer - Ports
What is a Port?

A port:

 is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the
computer.
 can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a
program to computer or over the internet.

Characteristics

A port has the following characteristics:

 External devices are connected to a computer using cables and ports.

 Ports are slots on the motherboard into which a cable of external device is plugged in.

 Examples of external devices attached via ports are mouse, keyboard, monitor,
microphone, speakers etc.

Following are few important types of ports:

Serial Port
 Used for external modems and older computer mouse
 Two versions : 9 pin, 25 pin model

 Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

Parallel Port
 Used for scanners and printers
 Also called printer port

 25 pin model
 Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

PS/2 Port

 Used for old computer keyboard and mouse

 Also called mouse port

 Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for mouse and keyboard

 Also known as IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

 It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer,
scanner, mouse, keyboard etc.
 It was introduced in 1997.

 Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.

 Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds

 USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port

VGA Port

 Connects monitor to a computer's video card.

 Has 15 holes.

 Similar to serial port connector but serial port connector has pins, it has holes.

Power Connector

 Three-pronged plug
 Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket

Firewire Port

 Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.

 Connects camcorders and video equipments to the computer
  Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds

 Invented by Apple

 Three variants : 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector and 9-Pin
FireWire 800 connector

Modem Port
 Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network

Ethernet Port

 Connects to a network and high speed Internet.

 Connect network cable to a computer.

 This port resides on an Ethernet Card.

 Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network
bandwidth.

Game Port
 Connect a joystick to a PC
 Now replaced by USB.

Digital Video Interface, DVI port

 Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high end video graphic cards.
 Very popular among video card manufacturers.

Sockets

 Connect microphone, speakers to sound card of the computer

Characteristics of a Computer
A computer system has certain qualities that make it advantageous over other means of
data processing. Some of these advantages include; high speed, accuracy, reliability,
versatility, mass storage capacity, precision and security.

1) Accuracy: Computers do not make mistakes; they are accurately programmed

and are not faulty in terms of components. Because computers can operate error-
 free, they can be trusted to produce accurate results, which is very vital to the
business and users.
2) High Speed: Computers are electronic devices and as such, can operate at the
speed of electricity. This makes the computer so fast in operate at the speed of
electricity. This makes the computer so fast in operation that in a matter of
seconds, the computer can accomplish what will take human being days to
accomplish.

Computer Processing Speeds

Operating speeds of computers are measured in a number of ways. For example:

 Milliseconds – Thousands of second

 Microseconds – Millionths of a second
 Nanoseconds – Billionth of a second
 Picoseconds – Trillionth of a second
 Teraflop – Used by some supercomputers
 MIPS – Million instructions per second
 Megahertz (MHz) – Millions of cycles per second
 Gigahertz (GHz) – Billions of cycles per second
 Clock speed – Used to rate microprocessors by the speed of their timing
circuits and internal clock.
3) Reliability: Computers are reliable and consistent in the information it produces.
Given the same program and same data, the result produced should be the same at
all times. That is why computer-type devices like microprocessors are introduced
into the household appliance and automobiles to increase their longevity and
reliability. This does not mean that the computer cannot breakdown. When
computer breakdown, it is no longer operational and it is said to be broken down.
The amount of time that computer stays in an inoperable condition is referred to
as downtime.
4) Mass Storage Capability: Computers are able to store very large and extensive
amount of data for long periods of time.
5) Security: Data and information stored in computer systems are very vital; some
contains new business trends, business secrets, military and defense information,
medical records stored, etc. They are protected to a greater extent from people
who should not access the data or information because they have no authority to
by use of passwords, user names, anti-virus, encryption etc. Computers therefore,
provide great security to vital data and information stored in it.
6) Versatility: Computers are versatile. They can be used in many fields some areas
in which the computer can be used include payroll system, examination marking,
accounting, military, teaching and learning, designing and manufacturing,
entertainment, airline seat reservation, etc.
7) Precision: Computers makes it possible to represent information, especially
numerical quantities, to any (reasonable) desired degree of magnitude. This
quality is very useful in any business function and applications.
Computer Software.
This refers to programs or a set of instructions (in machine code) given to the computer to solve
user problems and to control different operations of the computer. The software is developed in
programming languages.

The Computer software is classified into two main categories:

i. Application software.
ii. System software.

1. Application Software

A set of programs used to solve particular problems of user through computer is called
Application software. It is also known as application package. The ready packages are also
available in market on CDs for various purposes. These are used by user who does not know the
computer programming. The users solve their problems by using ready packages more easily and
quickly. Some of application packages are:

1. Word processing software.

2. Spreadsheet software.
3. Database Management System software.
4. Graphics software.
5. Communication software.

1. Word Processing Software

This software is used to create and to edit documents such as letters, reports, essays etc. The
word processing software provides several features for document editing and formatting. In.
editing process, text is entered into the document, deleted, copied or moved to another location
etc. In formatting process, different formats can be applied on the text to make the document
more attractive before to print on the printer. The most popular word processing software
programs are: Microsoft Word, Word Perfect etc.

2. Spreadsheet Software
Spreadsheet software is used to store and process data in an electronic sheet having columns and
rows. The data is entered into the cells of the sheet. The intersection of a row and a column is
known as cell. Each cell is a unique address. The numbers and formulas are entered into the cells
and the computer can automatically perform the calculation on numerical data in cells.

The spreadsheet software is commonly used for business application such as for performing
financial calculations and recording transactions. The most popular example of spreadsheet
software is Microsoft Excel etc.

3. Database Management Software

Database management software is used to create and manage databases. A database is a

collection of related information or records on any subject such as records of the books in a
library, information about the students of a college etc.

Database Management Software stores and manages records in databases. These records can be
accessed very quickly when required. The Microsoft Access, Oracle etc. are most popular
examples of Database Management Software.

4. Presentation Graphics Software

The presentation graphic software is used to create slides for making presentations. The
presentation graphic software also has pre-drawn clip art images, which can be inserted into
slides and can be modified. The PowerPoint is an example of presentation graphic software.

5. Communication Software

The Communication software is used to exchange information electronically. It is most

commonly used software to send and receive information on the Internet. It also allows for
sending and receiving faxes directly. The computer files can also be transferred from one PC to
another through this software. The Internet Explorer is an example of this software.

2. System Software

System software is a set of programs that control the operations of a computer and coordinates
the hardware devices attached with the computer. It creates interface (link) between user and
computer as well as controls the execution of application programs. System software are
essential for a computer to do work, Without this software no interface can be created between
user and computer.

The examples of system software are:

  Operating systems.
 Utility programs.
 Device Drivers.
 Language Processors.

OPERATING SYSTEM (SYSTEM SOFTWARE).

An operating system (OS) is a system software that runs on computers and manages the
computer hardware and provides common services for efficient execution of various application
software. or The operating system is the program that manages computer operations. An
operating system is an interface between hardware and applications; it is responsible for the
management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the limited resources of the
computer. The operating system acts as a host for applications that are run on the machine. As a
host, one of the purposes of an operating system is to handle the details of the operation of the
hardware. This relieves application programs from having to manage these details and makes it
easier to write applications. Almost all computers, including handheld computers, desktop
computers, supercomputers, and even video game consoles, use an operating system of some
type. Some of the oldest models may however use an embedded operating system that may be
contained on a compact disk or other data storage device. Examples of operating systems include
DOS, Windows MAC, APPLE, UNIX, LINUX etc.

FUNCTIONS OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM

Regardless of the size and complexity of the computer and its operating system, all operating
systems perform the same basic functions:

i). File and folder management – An operating system creates a file structure
on the computer hard drive where user data can be stored and retrieved. When
a file is saved, the operating system saves it, attaches a name to it, and
remembers where it put the file for future use.
ii). Management of applications – When a user requests a program, the
operating system locates the application and loads it into the primary memory
 or RAM of the computer. As more programs are loaded, the operating system
must allocate the computer resources.
iii). Support for built-in utility programs –The operating system uses utility
programs for maintenance and repairs. Utility programs help identify
problems, locate lost files, repair damaged files, and backup data.
iv). Used to control and coordinate all peripheral devices that are attached to the
computer system. Peripheral devices we mean input and output devices.

FILE MANAGEMENT

Under file management we talk about how files are arranged into Folders (Directories or
Subdirectories) and the file can be defined as the small unit of organization of information. A
folder can be defined as a container for storing file or sub-folders.

Files and folders in an operating system are arranged in a hierarchical tree structure manner.