Engineering Mechanics - Statics

CIVILENG 1004

University of Adelaide
Semester 1 2024
© University of Adelaide Statics

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Contents

1 Introduction to Mechanics 5
1.1 Engineering Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Force vectors and particle equilibrium 7

2.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Force vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Cartesian vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Addition of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.5 Equilibrium of a particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.6 Free Body Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

3 Moments, couples and rigid Body Equilibrium 21

3.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.2 Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Moments with unknown lever arm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 Couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Equilibrium of rigid body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.6 Support conditions in 2D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4 Friction 37
4.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.2 Fricton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.3 The dry friction model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.4 Experimental determination of the coefficient of friction µs . . . . . . . . 40
4.5 Procedure for the analysis of friction problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5 Trusses 53
5.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.2 Trusses Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.3 Internal axial forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.4 Statical determinacy and internal stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.5 Analysis by the Method of Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.6 Zero force members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.7 Analysis by the method of sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

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© University of Adelaide Statics

6 Centroids, Centre of gravity and distributed loading 73

6.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
6.2 Centroids of bodies from mathematically described shapes . . . . . . . . 81
6.3 Distributed loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.4 Fluid Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

7 Internal Forces - shear forces and bending moments 101

7.1 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.2 Types of internal forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.3 Shear Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.4 The relationship between shear force and loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.5 Bending Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
7.6 The relationship between bending moments and shear forces . . . . . . . 141

4 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Introduction to Mechanics

Mechanics is the area of physical science concerned with the behaviour of physical bod-
ies subject to forces. There are two main branches of mechanics, Classical Mechanics
(also called Applied Mechanics or Engineering Mechanics) and Quantum Mechanics
which rose to prominence in earth 20th century to tackle problems involving quanta or
discrete amounts of physical quantities.

1.1 Engineering Mechanics

Within Engineering Mechanics there are many branches (e.g. celestial mechanics,
fluid mechanics), these notes however will only cover the topics of:

• Statics

• Mechanics of materials (or Solid Mechanics)

• Structural Mechanics

1.1.1 Newton’s laws of motion

• Law I: An object either is at rest or moves at a constant velocity, unless acted
upon by an external force

• Law II: The acceleration of a body is directly proportional to, and in the same
direction as, the net force acting on the body, and inversely proportional to its
mass. Thus, F = ma, where F is the net force acting on the object, mis the mass
of the object and a is the acceleration of the object.

• Law III: When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simul-
taneously exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to that of
the first body.

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© University of Adelaide Statics

1.1.2 Quantities and units of measurement

The fundamental quantities used in mechanics are mass [M ], length [L] and time [T ].
We use the International System of Units, abbreviated to S.I. In this system of units,
mass is measured in kilograms (kg), length in metres (m) and time in seconds (s). Whilst
these are the base units, it can sometimes be convenient in calculations to multiples (e.g.
kilometres km = 1 × 103 m) or fractions (e.g. micro-seconds µs = 1 × 10−6 s), common
multiples are shown in the tables below.
Multiple Exponent Prefix Symbol
1 000 103 kilo k
1 000 000 106 mega M
1 000 000 000 109 giga G

(sub-)Multiple Exponent Prefix Symbol

0.001 10−3 milli m
0.000 001 10−6 micro µ
0.000 000 001 10−9 nano n

Multiples of 1000 are generally separated by a space, however it is not unusual to see
a comma used. Likewise, it is more usual to use a full stop or decimal point to denote
a sub-multiple although again it is not unusual in some countries to see a comma used
instead. In addition to the fundamental measures of quantity we also have derived units.
For example the velocity of a body is distance (m) travelled per unit time (s), which
can be written as a fraction as ms or alternatively using exponential notation as m · s−1 .
One of the most commonly used derived units in mechanics is the Newton to measure
force, which from Newtons second law F = m · a = kg · m · s−2 . Whilst the unit of force
contains the fundamental unit of time, in this course we will be considering only statics,
thus all forces are assumed to act slowly.

1.1.3 Accuracy of calculations

Calculations should only be performed to the level of accuracy of physical measurements
that serve as input. The number of significant figures or decimal places is not always
known (especially in tutorial problems where data is given), therefore recording results
using 3 significant figures is usual. When performing calculations however it is always
advisable to store numbers in the calculator to avoid numerical round-up. When using
sines and cosines of angles or pi, for example, truncation of intermediate results can
worsen the error of a final result. When not using a calculator keeping fractions or
square roots for as long as possible can reduce errors.

6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICS

Chapter 2

Force vectors and particle

equilibrium

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© University of Adelaide Statics

2.1 Learning Outcomes

• Resolve a 2-D vector into components.

• Add 2-D vectors.

• Analyse the equilibrium of a particle.

2.2 Force vectors

A scalar quantity is one that only has magnitude, for example the mass of a person is
measured in kilograms kg. The mass is completely independent of direction. The weight
of a body however is dependent on the direction - the weight of a person is calculated
from Newton’s second law as mass × gravity and acts towards the centre of gravity of
the earth.

2.3 Cartesian vectors

A general way of handling vectors is to resolve the vectors into their Cartesian compo-
nents as shown in figure 2.1. where the x and y components can be calculated as

Fy
FR

q
Fx
Figure 2.1: Cartesian vector

Fx = Fr cos θ (2.1)

Fy = Fr sin θ (2.2)
The magnitude of the resultant force can be calculated from the Cartesian components
using Pythagoras theorem √
FR = Fx2 + Fy2 (2.3)
The direction can be calculated from trigonometry
( )
Fy
θ = arctan (2.4)
Fx

8 CHAPTER 2. FORCE VECTORS AND PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM

Statics © University of Adelaide

Example 1
The accompanying video for this example can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - forces example 1

Resolve the force vector given in figure 2.2 into its x and y components

500 N

o
25
x

Figure 2.2: Forces example 1

Fx = 500 · cos 25
= 453.2 N

Similarly,

Fy = 500 · sin 25
= 211.3 N

We can finally apply a check, using Pythagoras theorem

√
FR = Fx2 + Fy2
√
= 453.22 + 211.32
= 500 N

CHAPTER 2. FORCE VECTORS AND PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM 9

© University of Adelaide Statics

Example 2
The accompanying video for this example can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - forces example 2

Resolve the force in figure 2.3 into its Cartesian components

o
12 x
200 N

Figure 2.3: Forces example 2

Method 1 Use the angle drawn and recognise the positive or negative directions of
the components with respect to the coordinate axes.
Fx = −200 · cos 12 = −195.6 N
Fy = −200 · sin 12 = −41.6 N

Method 2 Use the angle measured anti-clockwise from the positive x-axis as shown
in figure 2.4. Using the magnitude of the force and the cosine of the angle for the x-

y
o o SIN ALL
180 + 12

x
TAN COS
200 N

Figure 2.4: Forces example 2 - anti-clockwise angle measurement

direction and sine for the y-direction,“CAST” will take care of the positive or negative
signs automatically.
Fx = 200 · cos 192 = −195.6 N
Fy = 200 · sin 192 = −41.6 N

10 CHAPTER 2. FORCE VECTORS AND PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM

Statics © University of Adelaide

Tutorial 1
Note: most tutorials in this course are available in MyUni for you to check your solutions.
Resolve the following forces into their x and y components

150 N
o
30 35
o
20 kN

o 150 N
o 60
15
78 kN

Example 3
The accompanying video for this example can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - forces example 3

If we have the Cartesian component of a vector, it is sometimes useful to be able to

calculate the resultant force and it direction from the components. Given Fx = 50 N
and Fy = −10 N, the resultant force is
√
FR = Fx2 + Fy2
√
= 502 + (−10)2
= 51 N

Using Pythagoras theorem, the angle is

−10
arctan( ) = −11.31◦ (2.5)
50

or 348.7◦ measured anti-clockwise from the positive x-axis.

CHAPTER 2. FORCE VECTORS AND PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM 11

© University of Adelaide Statics

Tutorial 2
Given Fx and Fy , determine the resultant forces (measure the angle from the positive
Fx = +21 N, Fy = +35 N FR = direction =
F = −46 N, Fy = +35 N FR = direction =
x-axis) x
Fx = +65 N, Fy = −15 N FR = direction =
Fx = −65 N, Fy = −15 N FR = direction =

12 CHAPTER 2. FORCE VECTORS AND PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM

Statics © University of Adelaide

2.4 Addition of Vectors

Whilst methods such as the parallelogram law exist for the addition of vectors, the most
general way to perform the addition of any number of vectors is through the summation
of the Cartesian components of the individual vectors.

Example 4
The accompanying video for this example can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - forces example 4
Add the two vectors shown in Figure 2.5 Step 1 – resolve vectors into components

150 N
o
30

o
15
78 N

Figure 2.5: Forces example 3 - Vector Addition

F1x = 150 cos 30 = 129.9 N

F1y = 150 sin 30 = 75 N
F2x = 78 cos 15 = 75.4 N
F2y = −78 sin 15 = −20.2 N
Step 2 – add x and y components
FRx = F1x + F2x = 129.9 + 75.4 = 205.25 N
FRy = F1y + F2y = 75 + (−20.2) = 54.81 N
Step 3 – Calculate the magnitude of the resultant
√ √
2 2
FR = FRx + FRy = 205.252 + 54.812 = 212.4 N (2.6)
Step 4 – compute direction
FRy 54.81
θ = arctan( ) = arctan( ) = 14.95◦ (2.7)
FRx 205.25

Tutorial 3
Add the vectors shown in Figure 2.6, give the x and y components, the resultant force
and the direction.

CHAPTER 2. FORCE VECTORS AND PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM 13

© University of Adelaide Statics

150 N
o
40 N 30

o
15

Figure 2.6: Forces tutorial 4 - Vector Addition

2.5 Equilibrium of a particle

What is a ‘particle’?

• “Particles” have mass but can neglect size - massive points.

• All forces act through the “centre” of the particle (no moments or torques or
couples!)

What is equilibrium? A particle to which forces are applied is in (static) equilibrium if

the net force is zero: ∑
F⃗ = 0 (2.8)
which, in three dimensions, requires that
∑
Fx = 0
∑
Fy = 0
∑
Fz = 0

Example 5
Given the force vectors F1 and F2 , as shown in Figure 2.7,calculate the force vector F3
required to keep the particle in equilibrium. The directions of F1 , F2 , and F3 are α, β
and γ respectively.

Force Magnitude (N) Angle (deg)

F1 200 40
F2 300 15

Resolve forces

F1x = 200 · sin 40 or F1x = 200 · cos 310 = 128.6N

F1y = 200 · cos 40 or F1y = 200 · sin 310 = −153.2N
F2x = 300 · cos 15 = 289.8
F2y = 300 · sin 15 = 77.6N

14 CHAPTER 2. FORCE VECTORS AND PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM

Statics © University of Adelaide

y
F2

F3
g
b
x

F1

Figure 2.7: Forces example 5 - Particle equilibrium

∑
For equilibrium Fx = 0

F1x + F2x + F3x = 0

128.6 + 298.8 + F3 · cos(180 − γ) = 0
∑
Likewise Fy = 0

F1y + F2y + F3y = 0

−153.2 + 77.6 + F3 · sin(180 − γ) = 0

This gives a system of two equations with two unknowns. This system of equations
can be solved by hand to obtain F3 and γ directly, however can be cumbersome, we
will therefore work with the x and y components of F3 to determine the magnitude and
direction.

F3x = −(128.6 + 298.8) = −418.3 N

F3y = −(−153.2 + 77.6) = 75.6 N

Therefore, from Pythagoras theorem, the magnitude is

√
F3 = (−418.3)2 + 75.62 = 425.1 N (2.9)

and the direction is

75.6
γ = arctan() = 10.24◦ (2.10)
418.3
Note the resultant is actually below the x-axis as indicated by the negative angle γ. The
angle measured anti-clockwise from the positive x-axis is therefore 180−10.24 = 169.76◦ .

CHAPTER 2. FORCE VECTORS AND PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM 15

© University of Adelaide Statics

Tutorial 5
Using the same definitions of the forces and angles as shown in Figure 2.7 and given the
data:
Force Magnitude (kN) Angle (deg)
F2 100 40
F3 86.6 10
Calculate the force F1 required to maintain equilibrium and the corresponding angle α.

Tutorial 6
A particle is subject to the forces shown in Figure 2.8, given the magnitudes and direc-
tions of the forces in the table

F2

F1

x
Figure 2.8: Forces tutorial 6 - Particle equilibrium

Force Magnitude (kN) Angle (deg) from positive x-axis

F1 100 60
F2 130 120
Calculate the magnitude of the force required to maintain the particle in equilibrium
and its corresponding direction.

16 CHAPTER 2. FORCE VECTORS AND PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM

Statics © University of Adelaide

2.6 Free Body Diagrams

Free Body Diagrams are one of the most important things for you to know
how to draw and use.
What is a free body diagram?
It is a sketch showing all the forces acting on a particle (or body).
Why draw a free body diagram?
It helps engineers to identify all the forces, their directions and positions and there-
fore construct the equations of equilibrium to solve real world problems. Procedure for
constructing a free body diagram:
• draw outlined shape of the body when it is isolated from its surroundings.
• draw all the forces that act on the particle, including reaction forces if a body is
supported.
• identify the known forces and their directions.

Example 6
The accompanying video for this example can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - forces example 6

A mass of 50 kg is suspended from a two cables as shown in Figure 2.9

1.0 m 1.5 m
aa aa
aa aa
aa aa
aa aa
aa aa
aa aa
aa aa
1.5 m aa aa
aa aa
aa aa 1.0 m
aa aa
aa aa
aa aa
aa aa
aa aa
aa aa
aa aa
aa aa
aa aa
aa 50 kg
aa
aa aa
Figure 2.9: Forces example 6 - real world system

In order to calculate the forces in the cables, we first isolate the particle or body of
interest from the rest of the world, as shown in Figure 2.10.

CHAPTER 2. FORCE VECTORS AND PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM 17

© University of Adelaide Statics

50 kg

Figure 2.10: Forces example 6 - isolate particle of interest

As the cables are only able to carry forces in tension, they can only apply a pulling force
on the particle, and furthermore the direction of the force must be concurrent with the
direction of the cable. We can therefore calculate the directions of the forces from the
cable. The weight (force) of the mass can be computed by multiplying by the acceleration
due to gravity g and it must act in the negative y (vertical) direction.

T2 T1
b a

Figure 2.11: Forces example 6 - free body diagram

To complete our free body diagram, we calculate the known directions

α = 33.7◦
β = 56.3◦

and known force

W = 50 × 9.81 = 490.5 N (2.11)

Now that the FBD is complete, we can assess whether there is enough information for
the problem to be solved. We have 2 equations (equilibrium in the x and y directions)
and two unknowns, therefore the problem is solvable.

∑
Fx = 0 : T1 cos α − T2 cos β = 0 (2.12)
∑
Fy = 0 : T1 sin α + T2 sin β − W = 0 (2.13)

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Statics © University of Adelaide

From equation (2.12) we get

cos β 2
T1 = T2 · = T2 · (2.14)
cos α 3
which we can substitute into (2.13)

2
T2 · sin α + T2 sin β − 490.5 = 0
3
2
T2 · · 0.5547 + T2 · 0.832 = 490.5
3
1.20 · T2 = 490.5
T2 = 408.1 N

and substituting back into equation (2.14)

T1 = 272.1 N (2.15)

CHAPTER 2. FORCE VECTORS AND PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM 19

© University of Adelaide Statics

20 CHAPTER 2. FORCE VECTORS AND PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM

Chapter 3

Moments, couples and rigid Body

Equilibrium

21
© University of Adelaide Statics

3.1 Learning Outcomes

• understand and define the moment of a force.

• determine moments of a force in 2-D.

• define a couple and determine the moment of a couple.

• Identify support reactions.

• Draw a free body diagram.

• Analyse the equilibrium of rigid bodies in two-dimensional problems.

3.2 Moments
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - moments 1

The moment of a force about a point or an axis provides a measure of the tendency of
the force to cause the body to rotate about that point or axis. It is also sometimes called
a torque. How is the moment of the force about a point calculated?

line of action of the force F

d
o

moment / lever arm

Figure 3.1: Moment of a force about a point

1. draw the line of action of the force:

• a co-linear extension of the force vector.

• the line of action of F and the point O define the plane above.

2. Draw a moment arm from O perpendicular to line of action.

22 CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM

Statics © University of Adelaide

The moment of the force F about O:

M0 = F × d (3.1)

where d is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to point O.
Usual sign convention:

• impending rotation is CCW (counter-clockwise) about axis then M is positive

• impending rotation is CW (clockwise) about axis then M is negative

The force F will tend to rotate the object about an axis perpendicular to the plane
defined by the force and the moment arm. This axis is referred to as the moment axis.
Thus, MO is also referred to as the moment of the force about the axis passing through
O. If the line of action of the force passes through the point then there is no moment as
d = 0!

Example 1
The accompanying video for this example can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - moments 1

What is the moment of the force F in figure 3.2 about A, if F = 20 N and d = 5 mm?

Figure 3.2: Moments example 1

M = F ·d
= 20 × 5
= −100 N · mm

The minus sign denotes that the moment about point A is acting in a clockwise direction.

CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 23

© University of Adelaide Statics

Example 2
The accompanying video for this example can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - moments 1

What is the moment of the force F in figure 3.3 about A, if F = 20 N, d = 5 mm and

θ = 30◦ ? The perpendicular distance is not given, therefore it is easier to split the force

F
q

Figure 3.3: Moment of a force about a point

F into x and y components. The y component has no lever arm, in this instance, thus
the moment can be calculated from the x component alone.

Fx = F · cos θ
= 17.3N

3.3 Moments with unknown lever arm

Sometimes the lever arm, the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the
force and the point about which moments are being calculated, is not known. In Figure
3.4, if the distances Lx and Ly are known, we could calculate the lever arm d using the
vector dot product. However, it is easier to split the force F into it’s x and y components
and calculate the resulting moment as the sum of the moments.

MA = −F · d
= Lx · F y − L y · F x

It is vital that the correct direction of the moments is denoted by the counter-clockwise
positive sign convention.

24 CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM

Statics © University of Adelaide

F
q

Ly

d A

Lx

Figure 3.4: moments with unknown lever arm

Example 3
The accompanying video for this example can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - moments 1

Given F = 100 N, θ = 300◦ , Lx = 20 cm and Ly = 30 cm, what is the moment at point

A in Figure 3.4? First we need to compute the Cartesian components of the force

Fx = 100 · cos 30
= 86.60N
Fy = 100 · sin 30
= 50N

We can now multiply the individual components by their corresponding lever arms,
taking care with the anti-clockwise positive sign convention for moments.

MA = −(86.6 × 0.3) + (50 × 0.2)

= −25.98 + 10.00
= −15.98N · m. (3.2)

In the calculation above we also converted cm to m in order to avoid complications with

the units.

CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 25

© University of Adelaide Statics

Tutorial 1
What is the moment at A in figure 3.5?

0
20 N 17
7.5 m

Figure 3.5: moments tutorial 1

26 CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM

Statics © University of Adelaide

Tutorial 2
What is the moment at A in figure 3.6?

1m

3m

q
F

2m

Figure 3.6: moments tutorial 2

Tutorial 3
What is the moment at A in figure 3.7?

500
3m
2 kN

2m

Figure 3.7: moments tutorial 3

CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 27

© University of Adelaide Statics

3.4 Couples
A couple is defined as two parallel forces with the same magnitude, but opposite in
direction, separated by a perpendicular distance d as shown in figure 3.8. The moment

F
d
F

Figure 3.8: A couple

of a couple
Mc = F · d (3.3)
Couples have zero net force. Since the moment of a couple depends only on the distance
between the forces, the moment of a couple is a free vector it can be moved anywhere
on the body and have the same external effect on the body.

Example 4
We will calculate the moment at a point in figure 3.9, using both the moment of a couple
and the sum of the moments from the individual forces.
10 kN

2m

10 kN
2.5 m

Figure 3.9: Couple example

Moment of a couple
The parallel forces are 10 kN with a perpendicular distance between them. The moment
of the couple is therefore
Mc = F · d
= 10 · 2
= 20kN m

28 CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM

Statics © University of Adelaide

The moment is turning in an anti-clockwise direction, so is therefore positive in our sign

convention. As the moment of a couple is a free vector, the moment at A is also 20 kNm.

Individual moments
The moment of the force 2.5 m away from A is

M1 = −(102.5)
= −25kN m(clockwise)

Similarly

M2 = 10 × 4.5
= 45kN m(anti − clockwise)

The total moment at A is therefore

MA = M1 + M2
= −25 + 45
= 20kN m (3.4)

3.5 Equilibrium of rigid body

The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - moments 2

In contrast to the forces on a particle, the forces on a rigid-body are not usually concur-
rent and may cause rotation of the body (due to the moments created by the forces) as
shown in figure 3.10. For a rigid body to be in equilibrium, the net force as well as the

Figure 3.10: A rigid body subject to a system of forces

net moment about any arbitrary point O must be equal to zero.

∑
F =0

∑
M =0

CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 29

© University of Adelaide Statics

To analyse an actual physical system, first we need to create an idealized model. Then
we need to draw a free-body diagram (FBD) showing all of the external (active and
reactive) forces. Finally, we need to apply the equations of equilibrium to solve for any
unknowns.

Example 5
The accompanying video for this example can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - moments 2

Figure 3.11 shows a concrete beam of length 10 m spanning the gap between two masonry
walls. The beam is subject to a 20 kN force 4 m from its left hand edge (for this example
the self-weight of the beam will be ignored). What are the forces from the masonry
wall that will be required to keep the beam in equilibrium? To analyse the problem the

20 kN

4m 6m

Figure 3.11: Idealised problem

idealised problem in figure 3.11, must be converted to a free body diagram of the beam
alone. Figure 3.12 shows the beam in isolation subject to both the applied force of 20
kN and the reaction forces that the beam would feel from the masonry walls that it sits
upon. We can now apply the equations of equilibrium in order to determine the unknown
reactions. We will first sum the forces in the x direction, and impose the constraint that
the sum must be equal to zero for equilibrium

RAx = 0

In this problem there are no forces acting in the x direction and therefore the horizontal
reaction is zero. We will now sum the forces acting in the y direction

RAy + RBy − 20 = 0

The above equation leaves us with 2 unknowns, we will derive a second equation by
taking moments about some point along the beam. The choice of where to take mo-
ments is completely arbitrary, as the sum of the moments should be zero everywhere

30 CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM

Statics © University of Adelaide

20 kN

RAx

RAy R By

4m 6m

Figure 3.12: Free body diagram

for equilibrium, however it is sometimes advantageous to choose a point that eliminates

one of the unknowns immediately. If we were to take moments 4 m along the beam, we
would get another equation relating RAy to RBy , which we could then substitute into
the equation above and solve for one of the reactions. A more direct way would be to
take moments about either of the ends, A or B, or the beam. Taking moments about
the left hand end (A), yields

RBy × 10 − 20 × 4 = 0

hence

RBy = 8kN

With RBy known we can now substitute this value into our equation for equilibrium in
the y direction to obtain RAy

RAy + 8 − 20 = 0

therefore

RAy = 12kN.

CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 31

© University of Adelaide Statics

Example 6
The accompanying video for this example can be found via the following hyperlink
A
Statics - moments 3

10 m beam is now embedded into a wall at its left hand end, as shown in figure 3.13.
What are the support reactions required at the left hand end, in order for the beam to

20 kN

10 m

Figure 3.13: Idealised problem

remain in equilibrium?
We again begin the solution process by drawing a free body diagram (FBD) of the beam
in isolation from its surroundings as shown in figure 3.14.

20 kN
MA
R Ax

R Ay

10 m

Figure 3.14: Free body diagram

As the beam is embedded in the wall, we assume that the wall is able to impose a
moment MA on the left hand end of the beam, in addition to a horizontal reaction RAx
and vertical reaction RAy . We can now use the three equations of equilibrium in 2D to
compute the unknown reactions.

32 CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM

Statics © University of Adelaide

By inspection, we can immediately see that the horizontal reaction RAx is zero, as no
other horizontal loads are acting on the beam.

RAx = 0

Summing the forces in the y direction

RAy − 20 = 0

Thus

RAy = 20kN

In order to find the reaction moment, we take moments about the left hand end

MA − 20 × 10 = 0

Thus

MA = 200kN m

The moment is given a positive sign as it must act in a counter-clockwise direction.

Tutorial 4
Given the rigid body in figure 3.15, if P1 = 12 kN and P2 = 8 kN and the distances
a = 2 m, b = 3 m and c = 4 m. Find the vertical reactions RAy and RBy required to
support the beam.

P1 P2

R Ay R By

a b c

Figure 3.15: Tutorial 4

CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 33

© University of Adelaide Statics

3.6 Support conditions in 2D

The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - moments 4

We have seen in the previous examples that a number of support conditions may be ap-
plied by external bodies on the rigid body we are examining. In reducing a problem from
its idealisation to a free body diagram the engineer sometimes has to make assumptions
as to what forces and/or moments a particular support condition may exert.
In 2D, three main support conditions can be imagined, as shown in figure 3.16

Fully fixed Pinned Roller

M
Rx Rx
Ry

Ry

Ry

Figure 3.16: Support conditions in 2D

34 CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM

Statics © University of Adelaide

Tutorial 5
Determine the support reactions for the beam shown in figure 3.17, given a = 3 m, b = 2
m, θ = 25◦ and P = 10 kN.

P
q

a b

Figure 3.17: Tutorial 5

Tutorial 6
Determine the support reactions for the beam shown in figure 3.18, given a = 5 m, b = 2
m, and P = 100 N.

a b
Figure 3.18: Tutorial 6

CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM 35

© University of Adelaide Statics

Tutorial 7
Determine the support reactions for the beam shown in figure 3.19, given a = 4 m, b = 3
m, and P = 25 kN.

a b c

Figure 3.19: Tutorial 7

Tutorial 8
Determine the support reactions for the beam shown in figure 3.20, given a = 3 m, b = 2
m, P1 = 10 kN and P2 = 5 kN.

P1 P2

a b

Figure 3.20: Tutorial 8

36 CHAPTER 3. MOMENTS, COUPLES AND RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM

Chapter 4

Friction

37
© University of Adelaide Statics

4.1 Learning Outcomes

• Describe the concept of dry friction and analyse the equilibrium of rigid bodies
subject to this force.

4.2 Fricton
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Fric-
Statics - Friction - Introduction

tion is the force of resistance acting on a body which prevents / retards slipping of that
body relative to a second body. We consider a body of weight w, sat on a rough surface
that is subject to an external force P that is attempting to set the body in motion, shown
in figure 4.1. As a result of the forces on the rigid block, friction will develop between the

rough surface

Figure 4.1: Rigid body on rough surface

block and the rough surface. The block will exert an uneven distribution forces normal
∆Nn and parallel ∆Fn to the rough surface, as shown in figure 4.2, as the roughness of
the surface will vary over the contact area. We integrate these force distributions to give
us concentrated loads and subsequently allow us to draw the free body diagram of the
block (figure 4.3). The friction force acts parallel to the contacting surface. Examining
the equilibrium of the block: Sum of the forces in the x direction:

F =P

Sum of the forces in the y direction:

N =W

Taking moments about point A:

N ·x=P ·h

38 CHAPTER 4. FRICTION
Statics © University of Adelaide

DFn

DN n
Figure 4.2: Uneven distributions of normal and frictional forces on a rigid block

4.3 The dry friction model

We present a ‘model’ of dry friction, in order that we can compute the friction force on
our rigid block. It is a ‘model’ in the sense that it approximates real life for practical
purposes. The schematic graph shown in figure 4.4 shows how friction develops as the
external force P is applied to the rigid block. Initially if no external force is applied, then
no friction force exists, as we increase the external force, the frictional force between the
block and the rough surface increases proportionally. At some limiting level of external
force, the block will suddenly begin to slide. In the dry friction model the limiting value
of friction Fs , at the point of impending motion is related to the normal force N

F s = µs N (4.1)

Where µs (Greek letter mu) is the static coefficient of friction. If the external force
is increased further, the resistance to sliding between the block and the rough surface
drops dramatically, before plateauing to a (relatively) constant value Fk , which can also
be related to the normal force
F k = µk N (4.2)
Where µk is the kinematic (or dynamic) coefficient of friction. The values of the coeffi-
cient of friction depend on the roughness of the surfaces in contact. In this module we
will only be considering friction up to and at the point of impending motion. The study
of frictional contact between surfaces can be much more complicated than the simple
dry friction model presented here. The study of interacting surfaces in motion is the
focus of the entire research field of tribology, likewise the internal friction in solids is
the subject of plasticity and have numerous research dedicated to the dissemination of
research in these fields!

CHAPTER 4. FRICTION 39
© University of Adelaide Statics

W
P

h
F
A
N
x
Figure 4.3: Free body diagram of a rigid block with friction

F
Fs

Fk
F=P

Figure 4.4: Model of static and dynamic friction

4.4 Experimental determination of the coefficient of

friction µs
In order to measure the value of the coefficient of friction between two materials, we
can set up an experiment with a block of one material sat on an inclined plane of the
other material, see figure 4.5 In the experiment we can gradually increase the angle of
incline θs until the block begins to slide. The free body diagram of the system is shown
in figure 4.6. For convenience we will choose to use the rotated axes x′ − y ′ instead
of the global x − y axes. Identification of the geometry is key to this operation. A
number of construction (dotted) lines are used to help identify the angles in figure 4.7.
At impending slip, The sum of the forces in the y ′ direction:
N − W cos θs = 0
The sum of the forces in the x′ direction:
Fs − W sin θs = 0

40 CHAPTER 4. FRICTION
Statics © University of Adelaide

qs

Figure 4.5: Friction experiment

W
qs
y

Fs
x’
y’
N

Figure 4.6: Free body diagram of the inclined block

or, using our limiting friction value for Fs from equation 4.1

µs N − W sin θs = 0

Rearranging these equations we get

W sin θs
µs = = tan θs
W cos θs
The angle θs is also called the friction angle or angle of repose and is the natural angle
that a pile of dry particulate material (sand) tends to form if poured.

CHAPTER 4. FRICTION 41
© University of Adelaide Statics

b
q
b
q b

,
y
,
x

b
q b
q

Figure 4.7: Friction - rotation of coordinate axes

42 CHAPTER 4. FRICTION
Statics © University of Adelaide

4.5 Procedure for the analysis of friction problems

1. Draw the free body diagram(s) of the body/bodies of interest. Be careful that the
friction force is pointing in the correct direction so as to oppose impending motion.
2. Determine the unknowns. Only assume Fs = µs N if considering slip conditions, if
the tipping motion of a body is considered the full frictional resistance may not be
generated.
3. Apply the equations of equilibrium, including frictional components to solve for
the unknowns.

Example 1
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Friction - example 1

Determine if the block shown in figure 4.8 will slide or tip. Depending upon how high

h W

rough surface

Figure 4.8: Example 1

the resultant external load is applied and how low the centre of gravity of the block is,
the block may tip over instead of sliding. We therefore need to check both scenarios and
determine the smallest force P from both scenarios to determine the critical case.

Assume slipping
At the point of impending motion, the fiction force will have reached the maximum
therefore for this case
F = µs N
From equilibrium in the y direction, we can find the normal force N , and hence the
friction force F
N =W

CHAPTER 4. FRICTION 43
© University of Adelaide Statics

h W

F
A

N
x

Figure 4.9: Slipping case, schematic and free body diagram

We can then find the external force P for the slipping case from equilibrium in the x
direction

P =F

And if desired, we can then calculate the position of the normal force x, by taking
moments about point A

N ·x=P ·h

Assume tipping
If the block is tipping, all of the normal force and friction force are concentrated on the
corner of the block. Therefore, in this case, the distance between the lines of action of
the weight and the normal force x = b/2 We can directly compute the required external

h W

A F

N
x=b/2

Figure 4.10: Tipping case, schematic and free body diagram

force by taking moments about point A shown in figure 4.10.

N ·x−P ·h=0

therefore, upon rearranging

N ·x
P =
h
44 CHAPTER 4. FRICTION
Statics © University of Adelaide

If required, we could find the friction force from horizontal equilibrium and the normal
force from vertical equilibrium.

NOTE: these are not general formulae, they can only be applied to this
problem with a horizontal force. In general you should always draw a free
body diagram of the system you are analysing.

Tutorial 1
Determine if the block shown in figure 4.11 will tip or slip, if the weight of the block
W = 490 N, the height at which the load is applied h = 1.0 m, the width of the block is
0.6 m and the coefficient of friction between the block and the rough surface µs = 0.4.

h W

rough surface

Figure 4.11: Tutorial 1

Tutorial 2
The rigid block of mass density of 2400 kg/m3 shown in figure 4.12 has dimensions a = 5
m, b = 3 m and c = 2 m. If the coefficient of friction µs = 0.2 and the external force P
is applied at an angle of 30◦ to the horizontal, determine if the block will tip or slip and
the force at which this will occur.

CHAPTER 4. FRICTION 45
© University of Adelaide Statics

a P
o
30
c

Figure 4.12: Tutorial 2

Example 2
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Friction - example 2

The box shown in figure 4.13 has a density of 1500 kg/m3 . If the static coefficient of
friction µs = 0.3, determine the force P at the point of impending motion. We will first

2.0 m

3m
P
1.5 m

4m
Figure 4.13: Example 2

determine the weight of the block

W = (2.0 × 1.5) · 1500 · 9.81

= 44145N (4.3)

46 CHAPTER 4. FRICTION
Statics © University of Adelaide

The block may slide down the incline or be pushed up the incline, we therefore have to
consider two scenarios.

Down the incline

We begin by drawing the free body diagram of the box (figure 4.14), with the friction
force F opposing the motion For convenience we consider equilibrium in the x′ − y ′ axes,

y y’
W P
3 5 W
P 4
N F
F N
x x’
Figure 4.14: Free body diagram of the block for the sliding down the incline scenario

beginning first in the y ′ direction

4
N −W · =0
5

4
N = 44145 ·
5
= 35316N

And in the x′ direction, at the point of impending motion the maximum friction force is
mobilised therefore F = µs · N . Considering equilibrium

3
W · N − Pdown = 0 (4.4)
5

Rearranging

3
Pdown = 44145 · − 0.3 · 35316
5
= 15892N

Therefore, the block will slide down the slope if the applied force P < 15.89 kN.

CHAPTER 4. FRICTION 47
© University of Adelaide Statics

y’
P
3 5 W
4
F
N

x’
Figure 4.15: Free body diagram of the block for the movement up the incline scenario

Up the incline
Drawing the free body diagram (figure 4.15), the only change is the direction of the
friction force. The normal force N remains unchanged, and considering equilibrium
along the x′ axis yields
4
W· + 0.3 · N − Pup 0
5
Therefore
3
Pup = 44145 · + 0.3 · 35316
5
= 37082N (4.5)

Therefore, if the applied force P > 37.08 kN, the block will slide up the hill.

Overall conditions for equilibrium

The block will remain in equilibrium if the following condition is true:

15.89 ≤ P ≤ 37.08kN

Tutorial 3
The box shown in figure 4.16 has a density of 1500 kg/m3 and an out of plane width of
1.0 m. If the force P = 15 kN, determine the static coefficient of friction µs required to
keep the box in equilibrium.

48 CHAPTER 4. FRICTION
Statics © University of Adelaide

2.0 m

3m
P
1.5 m

4m
Figure 4.16: Tutorial 3

Example 3
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Friction - example 3

Two blocks, one stacked on top of the other, are placed on an inclined surface at an angle
θ as shown in figure 4.17. The coefficient of friction between the blocks is µf 1 = 0.6,
the coefficient of friction between the second block and the inclined surface is µf 2 = 0.25
and θ = 20◦ . The weights if the blocks are W1 = 30 kN and W2 = 20 kN what happens
to the blocks? We can imagine 3 scenarios:

1. Block 1 slides.

2. Both blocks slide.

3. The blocks remain in equilibrium.

To determine scenario 1 we shall examine the free body diagram of block 1 Summing
the forces in the y ′ direction

W1 cos θ − N1 = 0

N1 = 28.2kN

For equilibrium in the x′ direction

F1 − W1 sin θ = 0

CHAPTER 4. FRICTION 49
© University of Adelaide Statics

Figure 4.17: Example 3

F1 = 10.26kN

The maximum friction force available on the interface between blocks 1 and 2 is

Fmax1 = µf 1 · N1 = 0.6 × 28.2

= 16.9kN

As the friction force F1 is less than the maximum possible, block 1 isn’t sliding relative
to block 2.
We shall explore if there is sliding between the inclined plane and block 2. Drawing a
free body diagram of block 2, including the normal and friction force between the two
blocks (figure 4.19) For equilibrium in the y ′ direction

N2 − N1 − W2 cos θ = 0

N2 = 28.2 + 20 cos 20 = 47kN

For equilibrium in the x′ direction

F2 − F1 − W2 sin θ = 0

F2 = 10.26 + 20 sin 20 = 17.1kN

50 CHAPTER 4. FRICTION
Statics © University of Adelaide

y’

W1

F1
N1

x’

Figure 4.18: Free body diagram for block 1 sliding only

N1
F1
y’

W2

F2
N2

x’

Figure 4.19: Free body diagram of block 2

The maximum friction force between block 2 and the plane is

Fmax2 = µf 2 · N2 = 0.25 × 47
= 11.75kN

As the Friction force required for equilibrium F2 is greater than the maximum friction
force Fmax2 we can conclude that both blocks are sliding down the incline.

CHAPTER 4. FRICTION 51
© University of Adelaide Statics

Tutorial 4
Two blocks on inclined planes are attached together by a rope, as shown in figure 4.20.
The coefficients of friction are µs1 = 0.2 and µs2 = 0.4 and the angle of the inclines are
α = 20◦ and β = 40◦ . If the weight of block 1, W1 = 30 N, what range of weights W2
can block 2 have for the system to remain in equilibrium?

2 frictionless pulley

1
2
a
b

Figure 4.20: Tutorial 4

52 CHAPTER 4. FRICTION
Chapter 5

Trusses

53
© University of Adelaide Statics

5.1 Learning Outcomes

• Apply the principles of equilibrium of particles and bodies to analyse the forces in
planar truss members.

5.2 Trusses Introduction

The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Trusses - Introduction

Trusses are structures comprised of bar (or rod) elements that are connected by pin
joints. We therefore, assume that the bars can only resist loads axially and do not bend.
We make 3 fundamental assumptions when analysing trusses:

• All loading must be applied at the joints (therefore self-weight is neglected).

• All members are joined together by smooth pinned joints.

• The full truss is statically determinate †.

† in addition to the condition of just enough supports, discussed in the previous section,
we also now require that the truss does not contain any redundant members.
These assumptions ensure that the elements that make up a truss can only carry axial
loading.

5.3 Internal axial forces

Before examining how to analyse trusses we need to first understand internal forces.
Imagine a bar being pulled by a series of forces as shown in figure 5.1 What is the

kN 1.0 0.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 2.0 2.0

m
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Figure 5.1: Bar in tension

internal force at x = 4 m?

1. 5 kN

2. 10 kN

3. 0 kN

54 CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES
Statics © University of Adelaide

Method to compute internal forces

We use rigid body equilibrium to calculate the internal force. Making a virtual cut in the
bar at the location where the internal force is required, we draw the free body diagram
of the bar (figure 5.2), including the internal force required to maintain the rope in force
equilibrium. Examining equilibrium of the section

kN 1.0 0.5 2.0 1.5 FL

m
0 1 2 3 4

Figure 5.2: Free body diagram of left hand side of virtual section

∑
Fx = 0 −→ −5.0 + FL = 0
FL = 5.0kN
Or, alternatively analysing the right hand side of the cut in figure 5.3

FR 1.0 2.0 2.0 kN

m
4 5 6 7 8

Figure 5.3: Free body diagram of right hand side of virtual section

∑
Fx = 0 −→ 5.0 − FR = 0
FR = 5.0kN
If we imagine a small element of material at the cut, the forces acting on this piece of
material are as shown in figure 5.4 The equal and opposite forces FL and FR in green

FR FL FR FL

Figure 5.4: Forces on small piece of material at the cut

(inside the element) are the internal forces and FL and FR in red (outside the element)
are the external forces. The internal forces show how the material would need to behave
in order not to be pulled apart. The internal forces act “equal but opposite” (equal in
magnitude, opposite in direction) to the external forces. Figure 5.5 shows the external
forces (red) and internal forces (green) on an element of material.

CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES 55
© University of Adelaide Statics

Tension

Compression

Figure 5.5: Forces on an element of material

5.4 Statical determinacy and internal stability

The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Trusses - determinacy and stability

Statical determinacy is an important concept in structural mechanics. A structure is

said to be statically determinate if the equations of statics (force equilibrium, moment
equilibrium) alone can be used to calculate the internal forces in a structure. More
important than whether we can simply use statics to determine internal forces is whether
a structure has been designed to achieve stability in the first place. For truss structures
we can apply a simple formula to determine if a truss design will be stable, using just
knowledge of the number of members m and the number of joints j we can write the
following criteria to ensure internal stability:

m + 3 ≥ 2j (5.1)

This formula is derived from the fact that we have at most 2 equations of equilibrium
at each joint j, a maximum of 3 support reactions for a statically determinate structure
in 2D (one for each equilibrium equation we can apply to the structure as a whole) and
m unknown member forces. If a structure is statically indeterminate, extra information
about the structure (material properties, deflections) is required to determine the internal
forces. The analysis of indeterminate structures is beyond the scope of this module, but
is covered in in other modules at the University of Adelaide in later years of some course
programmes.
The degree of indeterminacy allows us to ascertain how many extra or too few members
we have in a given truss, we can calculate the degree of indeterminacy, by rearranging
the stability criterion above as:
d = m + 3 − 2j (5.2)
We will consider a simple example to show how these quick checks can be applied to a
truss.

Example 1
Three trusses are shown in figure 5.6 It is clear on inspection that truss (i) would form a

56 CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES
Statics © University of Adelaide

joint

bar

(I) (II) (III)

Figure 5.6: Internal stability of truss structures

mechanism if any forces were applied to it. We can show that this truss fails the stability
criteria

4+3≥2×4 =⇒ criteria not satisfied

The degree of indeterminacy is

d = 4 + 3 − 2 × 4 = −1

We would therefore need to add at least one member to achieve internal stability.
Truss (ii), is clearly stable, we prove this using the formula

6+3≥2×4 =⇒ criteria satisfied

The degree of indeterminacy is

d = 6 + 3 − 2 × 4 = +1

Therefore, the structure is said to be over determinate or redundant. We would have to

remove 1 member to make the structure statically determinate. The internal stability of
truss (iii) is examined

5+3≥2 =⇒ criteria satisfied

And the degree of indeterminacy is

d=5+3−2×4=0

Therefore the truss is said to be statically determinate.

Note, redundancy is often preferred in the design of structures in order that the stability
of a structure can be maintained even if a member has been broken. This is particularly
useful in applications such as blast or earthquake engineering where structures are subject
to extreme loading scenarios.

CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES 57
© University of Adelaide Statics

Figure 5.7: Tutorial 1

Tutorial 1
Determine if the truss shown in figure 5.7 is:

a statically determinate, or

b internally stable

Tutorial 2
Determine if the truss shown in figure 5.8 is:

a internally stable

b statically determinate

c externally stable

Figure 5.8: Tutorial 2

58 CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES
Statics © University of Adelaide

Tutorial 3
Determine if the truss shown in figure 5.9 is:

a internally stable

b statically determinate

Figure 5.9: Tutorial 3

Tutorial 4
Determine if the truss shown in figure 5.10 is:

a internally stable

b statically determinate

c externally stable

CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES 59
© University of Adelaide Statics

Figure 5.10: Tutorial 4

5.5 Analysis by the Method of Joints

The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Trusses - Method of Joints

The method of joints is an application of particle equilibrium to analyse the forces in a

truss structure. Procedure

1. Identify a joint having:

a unknown force, or
b At most 2 unknown forces (this might be a support reaction)

2. Draw the free body diagram of the joint

3. Apply equations of equilibrium

4. Using results found proceed to next joint.

5. Draw full truss indicating the forces.

Example 2
We will demonstrate the analysis procedure for the method of joints via an example.
Consider the truss in figure 5.11. We are required to find all of the member forces.
We will proceed the analysis by considering the equilibrium of joint A, which has two
unknown member forces and the known external force.

60 CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES
Statics © University of Adelaide

4m

C 10 kN

3m

Figure 5.11: Example 2 - Method of joints

Joint A
To examine the equilibrium of this joint we draw the free body diagram (figure 5.12)
and presume that the unknown member forces are pointing away from the joint, thus
the members are assumed to be in tension. The known external load is drawn in the
direction given, in this case the negative y direction. We can now write our equations of
FAB

4 5
3

FAC A

10

Figure 5.12: Free body diagram of joint A

equilibrium, in exactly the same manner as we did for particle equilibrium problems:
∑ 3
Fx = 0 : =⇒ −FAC − FAB = 0 (5.3)
5

∑ 4
Fy = 0 : =⇒ FAB − 10 = 0 (5.4)
5
From equation (5.4)

FAB = +12.5 kN

CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES 61
© University of Adelaide Statics

where the + sign is showing that the member AB is in tension. Substituting for FA B in
equation (5.3), yields
FAC = −7.5 kN (compression)
We can now move on to either of the two remaining joints B or C. As joint B only has
1 unknown reaction it is simpler to go to this joint first.

Joint B
The first step is again to draw the free body diagram of the joint. In the case where
an external force is encountered I choose to draw the force in the known direction, or
assume to be acting positive. In figure 5.13 the as yet unknown reaction force RB x is
drawn pointing to the right, if the reaction is found to pulling to the left, then the force
will be automatically calculated as negative.

RBx B
4 5
3

FBC FAB

Figure 5.13: Free body diagram of joint B

∑ 3
Fx = 0 : =⇒ RBx + FAB = 0 (5.5)
5
∑ 4
Fy = 0 : =⇒ −FBC − FAB = 0 (5.6)
5
We can substitute our previous result that FAB = +12.5 kN, directly into equation (5.6)
to obtain
FBC = −10.0 kN (5.7)
If required we can also calculate the reaction forces. We can use equation (5.5) above to
get
3
RBx = − FA B
5
3
= − · 12.5 kN (5.8)
5
therefore
RBx = −7.5 kN (5.9)
To determine the reactions at C, we can choose to examine the equilibrium of joint C
or global equilibrium of the entire structure treated as a rigid body.

62 CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES
Statics © University of Adelaide

Joint C
Figure 5.14 shows two options for drawing the free body diagrams for joint C now that
the internal forces are known to be compressive. We can choose to draw the FBD with
the known forces acting in the now known directions as shown on the left hand side or
choose to draw the forces as tensile, but remember to use a minus sign in calculations.

Which method you choose is up to you, neither is wrong, just be very careful
with the signs as knowing whether a member is in tension or compression is
vital in design.

FBC FBC

RCx FAC RCx FAC

C C

RCy RCy

Figure 5.14: Free body diagram of joint C

∑
Fx = 0 : =⇒ RCx + FAC = 0 (5.10)

∑
Fy = 0 : =⇒ RCy + FBC = 0 (5.11)

From our analysis of joint A we know FAC = −7.5 kN, therefore substituting this value
into (5.10) we get

RCx = +7.5 kN

From joint B we know FBC = −10.0 kN, therefore using (5.11), we obtain

RCy = +10.0 kN (5.12)

Global equilibrium
Although we already know all of the member forces and reactions, we can now use our
equations of equilibrium for the entire structure as an extra check of our results. The
free body diagram for the entire structure is shown in figure 5.15

CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES 63
© University of Adelaide Statics

B
RBx

4m

RCx A
C

10 kN
RCy

3m

Figure 5.15: Free body diagram of the entire structure

∑
Fx = 0 : =⇒ RBx + RCc = 0 (5.13)

From joint B we calculated RBx = −7.5 kN and from joint C we got RCx = +7.5 kN,
therefore substituting into (5.13):

−7.5 + 7.5 = 0 correct

∑
Fy = 0 : =⇒ RCy − 10 = 0 (5.14)

From (5.14) RCy = +10.0 kN, which is the same as we obtained from the analysis of
joint C.
We still have a spare equation of equilibrium, taking moments about C

3 × 10 + 4 × RBx = 0
RBx = −7.5kN

which is identical to the value we obtained from joint B and gives us further confidence
in the check we made above by summing the forces in the x direction for the entire
structure.

64 CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES
Statics © University of Adelaide

Tutorial 5
Determine all of the member forces in the truss shown in figure 5.16 and calculate the
reaction forces.

E D

4m

C
A B 75 N

6m 2.5 m

Figure 5.16: Tutorial 5

Tutorial 6
Determine all of the member forces in the truss shown in figure 5.17 and calculate the
reaction forces.

G
5 kN

F
5 kN
8m
E
5 kN

A D
B C

4m 4m 4m

Figure 5.17: Tutorial 6

CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES 65
© University of Adelaide Statics

5.6 Zero force members

The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Trusses - Zero force members

The method of joints can be sped up if members that will carry no force can be identified
before starting the analysis.

Rule 1 for identifying zero force members

If only two non-collinear members form a truss joint, and no external load or
reaction is applied at the joint, the two members must be zero force members.

Example 3
We examine the truss shown in figure 5.18.

G
5 kN

F
5 kN
8m
E
5 kN

A D
B C

4m 4m 4m

Figure 5.18: Tutorial 6

Using our first rule for identifying zero force members, we can see that joint G has two
members forming a joint with no external load or reaction. Therefore, we can determine
immediately that FAG and FF G must be zero force members, as we determined previously
using the method of joints.

Rule 2 for identifying zero force members

If three members form a truss joint, and two members are collinear, the
third member is a zero force member, provided no external force or reaction
is applied at the joint.

66 CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES
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Example 4
We will return to another example, shown in figure 5.19, that we have calculated all
of the member forces already by hand. Using our second rule for zero force members,
we can see that joint B has 3 members, two of which are collinear therefore we can
immediately ascertain that FB D must be a zero force member.

E D

4m

C
A B 75 N

6m 2.5 m

Figure 5.19: Tutorial 6

CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES 67
© University of Adelaide Statics

5.7 Analysis by the method of sections

The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Trusses - Method of Sections

If only a few of the member forces in a truss are required, then the method of joints
can be very time consuming. We can speed up the analysis by applying the techniques
used previously for rigid body equilibrium. We will show the technique by way of an
example.

Example 5
Supposing we only need to know the member forces FEM , FEF and FLM in the truss
shown in figure 5.20 We will analyse the whole truss structure as a rigid body to determine

10 kN
H I J K L M N

2m
A G
B C D E F

3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m

Figure 5.20: Example 5 - method of sections

the reaction forces. As there are no horizontal applied forces

RAx = 0 kN

From symmetry

RAy = RGy = 5 kN

Instead of analysing many joints before getting to the three members we are actually
interested in, we will cut the structure through the members EM , EF and LM as shown
in figure 5.21. If the structure is in equilibrium, the entire structure, and joint or any
section of the structure must also be in equilibrium. We can therefore draw free body
diagrams (figures 5.22 and 5.23) of the sections of the structure, either side of the cut
we have made. The choice of which side of the cut to use for analysis is completely

68 CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES
Statics © University of Adelaide

10 kN
L M

2m
A G
E F

3m 3m 3m 3m 3m 3m

Figure 5.21: cut through truss

10 kN
L M

2m
A
R E F
RAy

3m 3m 3m 3m 3m

Figure 5.22: Free body diagram of left hand side

arbitrary, however in this case there are less forces on the system on the right hand side
than the left hand side. Taking moments about point M

RGy · 3 − FEF · 2 = 0
FEF = 7.5 kN

In order to calculate the cosine and sine, we need to calculate the length of the diagonal
members.
√ √
LEM = 22 + 32 = 13 = 3.606

Summing the forces in the y-direction, gives

2
RGy − FEM · √ = 0
13
√
13
FEM = 5 · = 9.01 kN
2
Finally, we can ascertain FLM from summing the forces in the x-direction
3
−FEF − FLM − FEM · √ = 0
13
3
FLM = −FEF − FEM · √
13

CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES 69
© University of Adelaide Statics

L M

2m

G
E F
R Gy

3m 3m

Figure 5.23: Free body diagram of right hand side

√
13 3
FLM = −7.5 − 5 · · √ = −15 kN
2 13
We can check our result by taking moments about another point, choosing joint F yields
3
RGy · 3 + FLM · 2 + FEM · √ · 2 = 0
13
√
13 3
15 − 30 + 5 · · √ · 2 = +15 − 30 + 15 = 0 correct
2 13
Note: In applying the “method of sections” technique to trusses we are lim-
ited to cutting at most 3 members, as we only have 3 equations of equilibrium
(in 2D) to exploit.

70 CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES
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Tutorial 7
Determine the member forces AB, BF and EF in the truss shown in figure 5.24.

G
5 kN

F
5 kN
8m
E
5 kN

A D
B C

4m 4m 4m

Figure 5.24: Tutorial 7

Tutorial 8
Determine the member forces that span across the cut in the truss shown in figure 5.25

1.0 kN

1.0 kN 1.0 kN

1.0 kN 1.0 kN
4m

0.5 kN 0.5 kN

1.5 m 1.5 m 2m 2m 1.5 m 1.5 m

Figure 5.25: Tutorial 8

CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES 71
© University of Adelaide Statics

72 CHAPTER 5. TRUSSES
Chapter 6

Centroids, Centre of gravity and

distributed loading

73
© University of Adelaide Statics

6.1 Learning Outcomes

• Discuss the concepts of centre of gravity, centre of mass and centroids.

• Determine the centroid or centre of gravity for irregularly shaped bodies.

• Calculate an equivalent force and its location for a distributed load or from a height
of fluid.

Centroids, centre of gravity and centre of mass

The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlinks
Statics - Centroids - Introduction
Statics - Centroids - Centroids/Centre of Gravity/Centre of Mass

The centroid of a body or shape is the geometric centre of that shape, as shown in figure
6.1 for a rectangle and triangle.

h h
y-
y-

x- x-
b b

Figure 6.1: Centroids of simple shapes

The position of the centroid of the rectangular body in figure 6.1 is

1
x̄ = b
2
1
ȳ = h
2
Similarly the centroid of a triangular body in figure 6.1 is
1
x̄ = b
3
1
ȳ = h
3
Methods to calculate the centroids of more complex shapes will be shown, however many
centroids for common shapes can be found easily in tables on the internet.

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The centre of gravity is point at which all of the weight of an object appears to be
concentrated.
The centre of mass of an object is identical to the centre of gravity IF the gravity field is
uniform. In most engineering problems this can safely be assumed to be true, in physics
life gets more complicated!

Centroids and centre of gravity of composite bodies

formed from simple shapes
The centroids of simple shapes are well known and can be exploited to calculate the
centroid and centre of gravity of much more complex shapes which are composites of
simple shapes.

Example 1
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Centroids - Example 1

We wish to compute the position (x̄c , ȳc ) of the centroid of the composite body shown
in figure 6.2. Where the height h = 5 m, and breadths b1 = 6 m and b2 = 4 m. The

h
y-c

x- c
b1 b2

Figure 6.2: Centroid of a composite body

locations of the centroid can be found by taking moments. Whilst any point can be used,
here we choose the bottom left hand corner of the body, we will conveniently place the
origin of our coordinate system at this point. The area Ac × lever arm of the composite
body will be equivalent to the sum of the areas × lever arms of the individual components
as shown in figure 6.3.

x̄c Ac = x̄1 A1 + x̄2 A2

Calculating the areas

A1 = h × b1 = 5 × 6 = 30 m2

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h
y-1
y-
2

x-1 x- 2
b1 b2

Figure 6.3: Centroids of component parts

1 1
A2 = (h × b2 ) = (5 × 4) = 10 m2
2 2

Ac = A1 + A2 = 30 + 10 = 40 m2

The lever arms of the individual bodies, measured to the coordinate axis (situated at
the bottom left hand corner) are
1 1
x̄1 = b1 = 6 = 3 m
2 2

1 1 1
x̄2 = b1 + b2 = 6 + 4 = 7 m or 7.333 m
3 3 3
Finally we can calculate the x coordinate of the composite centroid (rearranging the
equation above) as

x̄1 A1 + x̄2 A2
x̄c =
Ac
Therefore
3 × 30 + 10 × 7.333
x̄c =
40
= 4.08 m

We will illustrate how to calculate the centroids in tabular form, which aids the use of a
spreadsheet program in table 6.1
The general formula for calculating the centroid for any number of bodies is
∑n
1 x̄n · An
x̄c = ∑n (6.1)
1 An
This would simply require adding extra rows if using a spreadsheet.

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body x y A xA yA
1 3 2.5 30 90 75
2 7.333 1.667 10 73.333 16.667
C 40 163.333 91.667
4.0833 2.292

Table 6.1: Tabular method for computing centroids

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Tutorial 1
Find the x and y coordinates of the centroid of the composite body shown in figure 6.4,
measured from the bottom left hand corner. Take h1 = 60 mm, h2 = 100 mm, h3 = 20
mm, b1 = 60 mm, b2 = 30 mm and b3 = 80 mm.

h2

h1

h3

b1 b2 b3

Figure 6.4: Centroid tutorial 1

Tutorial 2
Calculate the x and y coordinates of the centroid of the shaded part of the body below
(Hint: you can subtract the hole). Take h1 = 75 cm, h2 = 35 cm, b1 = 15 cm, b2 = 50
cm and r = 5 cm.

h1
r

h2

b1 b2

Figure 6.5: Centroid tutorial 2

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Example 2
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Centroids - Example 2

Calculate the centre of gravity of the composite body in figure 6.6.

h1
1
2 h2

b1 b2

Figure 6.6: Centroid example 2

Data
h1 = 4 m b1 = 2 m ρ1 = 1000 kg/m3
h2 = 2 m b2 = 5 m ρ2 = 3000 kg/m3

Assume the out of plane width to equal 1 m. Instead of calculating the areas of the
bodies as we did to compute centroids, we now calculate the weights of the bodies.
W1 = density × volume × gravity = 1000 × (4 × 2 × 1) × 9.81 = 78480 N
W2 = density × volume × gravity = 3000 × (2 × 5 × 1) × 9.81 = 294300 N
The total weight of the body is therefore
WT ot = W1 + W2 = 372780N
Finally, we can determine the line of action of this resultant force, by taking moments.
Choosing the bottom left corner
b1 b2
W1 · + W2 · (b1 + ) = WT ot · x̄
2 2
78480 · 1 + 294300 · 4.5 = 372780 · x̄
x̄ = 3.76m
Similarly, in the y direction
h1 h2
W1 · + W2 · = WT ot · ȳ
2 2
78480 · 2 + 294300 · 1 = 372780 · ȳ
ȳ = 1.21m

CHAPTER 6. CENTROIDS, CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND DISTRIBUTED 79

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Tutorial 3
(a) Calculate the centroid and the centre of gravity for the body shown in figure 6.7.

(b) If bodies 1 and 2 are assumed to lie on a horizontal surface, determine the maximum
density of body 3 allowed for the whole body to remain in equilibrium.

e
h

a b c
Figure 6.7: Centroid tutorial 3

Data
Geometry: h = 4 m, a = 1.5 m, b = 1.8 m, c = 1.3 m and e = 1.4m.
Densities: ρ1 = 1000 kg/m3 , ρ2 = 500 kg/m3 and ρ3 = 2000 kg/m3

Tutorial 4
The cross section of a reinforced concrete beam is shown in figure 6.8. The sample is 200
mm wide and 300 mm deep, with 20 mm diameter steel reinforcing bars embedded. The
concrete matrix material is (grey) has a density of 2400 kg/m3 and the reinforcement
steel (black) has a density of 8000 kg/m3 . Calculate the distance in the y direction of
the centre of gravity of the specimen (measured from the bottom of the sample).

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300

40

40 120 40

Figure 6.8: Centroid tutorial 4

6.2 Centroids of bodies from mathematically described

shapes
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Centroids - by integration

The location of the centroid for a rectangular body can be ascertained from intuition.
The centroid of a triangle is well known, but how it is calculated is not so well known.
We will therefore investigate the procedure to calculate the location of the centroid of
any body that can be mathematically described.
We will begin with proving that the centroid of a triangular shape is, as expected, located
at x̄ 23 b , ȳ = 13 h from the origin. We consider a triangular body, where the equation of
the slope can be described by y=ax as shown in figure 6.9. We consider a differential

y y=ax
dx

~
y

x
~
x

Figure 6.9: Centroid by integration

element of width dx located at a distance x̃ from the origin. Similar to our procedure for
finding the centroid of a composite body, we can equate the multiple of the total area A
with the lever arm x̄ to the sum of the areas of the components dA multiplied by their

CHAPTER 6. CENTROIDS, CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND DISTRIBUTED 81

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individual lever arms x̃. ∫

x̃ dA
x̄ = ∫ (6.2)
dA
We are unable to evaluate this integral over dA, however we can convert to an integral
over dx. Recognising that the area dA of the element is
dA = y · dx
Substituting for dA and recognising that x̃ = x, yields
∫
x · y dx
x̄ = ∫
y dx
We can now substitute the equation of the straight line to replace y
∫
ax2 dx
x̄ = ∫
ax dx
We can now perform the definite integral over the width of the triangle b.
[ ]b [ ]
∫b 3 3
2
ax dx a x3 + c a b3 + c
]b = [ b 2 ]
0 0
x̄ = ∫b =[ 2
0 ax dx x
a 2 +c a2 +c
0
2
= b
3
We will now consider the y coordinate of the centroid ȳ, from similar arguments as
proposed above the centroid location of the body can be calculated from
∫
ỹ dA
ȳ = ∫ (6.3)
dA
Again recognising that the area dA of the element is
dA = y · dx
And that now the distance to the centroid of the differential element ỹ = y2 , hence
∫ y
· y dx
ȳ = ∫2
y dx
Now substituting the equation of the slope y = ax
[ ]b
∫ a 2 x2 a 2 x3
dx 6 1 a2 b 3
ȳ = ∫ 2 = [ 2 ]b
0
=
ax dx ax 3 ab2
2 0
1
= ab
3
Finally, from the equation of the slope, evaluated at b, y = ab = h, thus
1
ȳ = h
3
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Example 3
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Centroids - Example 3

Determine the location of the centroid under the curve y = x2 for x = 0 to x = 1 m.

The centroid of the differential element shown in figure 6.10 is (x̃, ỹ) where x̃ = x and

y y=x2

dx 1 x
x
Figure 6.10: Centroid example 3

ỹ = y2 . The area of the differential element dA = y · dx. Therefore

∫ ∫1
x̃ dA A 0 x · y dx
x̄ = ∫ = ∫1
A dA 0 y dx

Substituting the equation of the curve

[ ]1
∫1 3 x4 1
0 x dx 4 0 4
x̄ = ∫1 = [ 3 ]1 = 1 = 0.75m
2
x dx x
0 3
3 0

Similarly
∫ ∫1 y
ỹ dA
A 0 2 · y dx
ȳ = ∫ = ∫1
A dA 0 y dx
Again, substituting for the equation of the curve
[ ]1
∫ 1 x2 x5
0 2 · x dx 2
10 0
ȳ = ∫1 = [ 3 ]1 = 0.3m
0 x2 dx x
3 0

Alternatively, we could have used a horizontal differential element as shown in figure

6.11 Now the centroid coordinates are where x̃ = x + 12 (1 − x) and ỹ = y. The area of the

CHAPTER 6. CENTROIDS, CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND DISTRIBUTED 83

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y y=x2

dy

1 x
x
Figure 6.11: Centroid example 3

differential element dA = (1 − x) · dy. Whilst the mathematics is no more complicated,

the number of terms increases, it is therefore easier to use a vertical differential element
for integrating under a curve. If the area above a curve is required, using a horizontal
differential element is preferred.

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Tutorial 5
Find the coordinates of the centroid of the area shown in figure 6.12, where the curved
face is described by the function y = x3 .

y y=x3

1 x
x
Figure 6.12: Centroid tutorial 5

Tutorial 6
Find the coordinates of the centroid of the area shown in figure 6.13.

y
3

y=x3

1 x
x
Figure 6.13: Centroid tutorial 6

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6.3 Distributed loading

We have so far concerned ourselves with the equilibrium of particles, rigid bodies and
trusses involving the application of point loading. In real world situation the loading may
be considered to be distributed in some manner, the most obvious example being the
self-weight of a body. In order that we can perform calculations that include distributed
loading we need to transform the distributed loading in equivalent point loads.
To find the equivalent load we must calculate both the total load and the position that
it acts at. The total can be computed as the total of the load and the position is the
centroid of the loading.

Example 4
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Centroids - Example 4

Find the equivalent load W and its point of action for the uniformly distributed load
shown in figure 6.14. Subsequently, calculate the vertical reactions at the supports. Take
the intensity w of the loading to be 5 kN/m and the length L of the beam to be 8 m.

L
A B

Figure 6.14: Uniformly distributed load on a beam

The magnitude of the distributed loading is the intensity multiplied by the length over
which it is acting.

W = w × L = 5 × 8 = 40 kN

As the loading is uniform (constant amplitude), the equivalent load W acts at L/2,
the centroid of the loading. The free body diagram of the equivalent system is shown
in figure 6.15. We can now compute the reactions using the equations of equilibrium,
firstly the sum of the forces in the y direction

RAy + RBy − w × L = 0

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L/2

W = wL

R Ay R By

L
A B

Figure 6.15: Free body diagram of equivalent system

And then the sum of the moments about a point

L
RBy × L − (w × L) · =0
2
Hence
L 8
RBy × L = (w × L) · = (5 × 8) × = 160 kN.m
2 2
160
RBy = = 20kN
8
And thus from the sum of forces in the y direction (or on inspection from the symmetry
of the problem)
RAy = 20 kN (6.4)

Example 5
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Centroids - Example 5

We will now analyse a beam subject to a linearly varying load as shown in figure 6.16.
Taking the load intensities to be w1 = 4 kN/m, w2 = 10 kN/m and the length L =
6 m. Calculate the equivalent resultant loading(s) from the distributed loading and
subsequently calculate the vertical reactions at A and B.
Whilst we could choose to transform the distributed loading into a single resultant force
on the beam, we can observe that the “loading block” is trapezoidal. It is therefore easier
to decompose into a rectangle and triangle for which the centroids, and hence lines of
action of the resultant forces, are easier to calculate. The free body diagram of the
equivalent system is shown in figure 6.17. The locations of the lines of action, measured
from A are x̄1 = L2 = 3 m and x̄2 = 2L3
= 4 m.

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w2

w1

L
A B

Figure 6.16: Linearly varying load on a beam

2L/3

L/2
W2
W1

R Ay R By

L
A B

Figure 6.17: Free body diagram of equivalent system

The magnitudes of the equivalent loads are calculated from the areas of the loading
blocks as

W1 = w1 × L = 4 × 6 = 24kN
1 1
W2 = (w2 − w1 ) × L = (10 − 4) × 6 = 18kN
2 2

Armed with the loads and their positions we can now proceed to calculate the reactions
using the equations of equilibrium, firstly the sum of the forces in the y direction.

RAy + RBy − W1 − W2 = 0
RAy + RBy = W1 + W2
RAy + RBy = 42kN

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And then equating the sum of the moments about a point to be zero
L 2L
RBy × L − W1 · − W2 · =0
2 3
L 2L
RBy × L = W1 · + W2 ·
2 3
RBy × L = 24 × 3 + 18 × 4
RBy × L = 144kN.m
RBy = 24kN
Substituting this back into the equation for the sum of the forces in the y direction,
yields
RAy = 18kN
Looking back at the original diagram (figure 6.16), the fact that more loading is carried
by the support at B is entirely sensible.

Tutorial 7
A 12 m long beam, shown in figure 6.18, is carrying two heavy boxes. Assuming a unit
out of plane distance, and taking the density of the boxes to be ρ1 = 1600 kg/m3 and
ρ2 = 1200 kg/m3 , determine the vertical reactions at the supports.
1 2
0.5 m

1m

R Ay R By

2m 3m 7m
A B

Figure 6.18: Tutorial 7

Tutorial 8
The 10 m beam in figure 6.19 is carrying an object of mass density ρ = 700 kg/m3 . If
the out of plane dimension = 4 m, what are the vertical reaction forces on each beam?

Tutorial 9
A cantilever beam is subject to the uniformly distributed load as shown in figure 6.20.
What is the vertical reaction and moment at the supports? Take L = 6 m, w1 = 5 kN/m
and w2 = 10 kN/m.

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2m

R Ay R By

5m 5m
A B

Figure 6.19: Tutorial 8

w2

w1

L
A B

Figure 6.20: Tutorial 9

6.4 Fluid Pressure

The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Centroids - Fluid Pressure

Fluid at rest creates a pressure P at a point that is the same in all directions. Pressure
is defined as force per unit area, and has units of N/m2 or Pascal. The pressure is
dependent on the specific weight (or mass density) of the fluid and the depth from the
fluid surface. Figure 6.21 depicts a small element of fluid, at a depth h from the fluid
surface. A fluid surface is indicated in engineering drawings by the horizontal line with
the triangle with lines beneath. Figure 6.22 shows how the pressure changes over depth,
at the surface of a body of fluid the pressure is 0 and varies linearly with depth. The
hydrostatic pressure P in a fluid can be calculated from the formula

P = ρgh (6.5)

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Figure 6.21: An element of fluid beneath the surface

Figure 6.22: Distribution of fluid pressure with depth

Where ρ is the mass density of the fluid, g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is
the depth of the point where the pressure is being calculated from the surface. We will
check the dimensional consistency of this formula:
( ) ( ) ( )
N kg m
P =ρ · g 2 · h(m)
m2 m3 s
Remembering from Newton’s 2nd law that F (N ) = m(kg) · a(m/s2 ), we can see that
the formula is indeed dimensionally correct. The formula is sometimes written in terms
of the specific weight γ (gamma), which is defined as the weight (mass × acceleration)
per unit volume of a material and has units of N/m3 . The formula for pressure therefore
becomes
P = γh (6.6)
In the previous section we have converted distributed loading, measured in N⁄m, to point
loads and the line of actions from the centroid of the loading. In order to solve statics
problems involving fluid pressure, we must convert pressures to forces, and determine
the direction in which the pressure is acting on a structure.
The definition of pressure (force per unit area) can be invoked to convert pressures to
forces. The direction of loading from a fluid will always act normal to a solid surface
that the fluid is in contact with.

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Example 6
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Centroids - Example 6

We will demonstrate the conversion of a fluid in contact with a vertical wall, as shown in
Figure 63, from a pressure distribution into an equivalent point force. The fluid we will
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Figure 6.23: Fluid exerting pressure against a vertical wall

consider is water, which has a mass density of 1000 kg/m3 . We will also assume that
the wall continues for a long distance in the out of plane direction, and therefore we will
only consider a unit (1 m) out of plane strip of the wall.
We can calculate the pressure at the surface and at the depth h = 4 m we are interested
in.
N
P0 = 0
m2

N
Ph = 1000 · 9.81 · 4 = 39240
m2
We can see that the pressure against the wall, forms a triangular distribution. The
average pressure against the wall is therefore
1 1 N
Pavg = (Ph + P0 ) = (39240 + 0) = 19620 2
2 2 m
To convert this pressure to a force we need to multiply by the area over which this
average pressure is acting

A = b · h = 1 · 4 = 4m2

Therefore, the equivalent force is

Feqv = Pavg · A = 19620 · 4 = 78480N

As with any distributed loading, the line of action of the force will act through the
centroid of the distributed loading block, therefore the force will act at 32 · h = 2.67 m
below the water surface.

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Example 7
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Centroids - Example 7

We will now consider the equivalent force exerted on a 1.5 m wide plate in a vertical wall,
subject to water pressure, shown in figure 6.24. We wish to find the horizontal reactions
that would be required for the plate to remain in equilibrium. In this example we will
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1.5 m

1.5 m F

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2
p
h

Figure 6.24: Fluid pressure example 7

no longer have a triangular pressure distribution, instead the distribution is trapezoidal.

However, the procedure to calculate the average pressure is not too different. We begin
by calculating the pressures at the top and bottom of the plate.
N
P1 = 1000 · 9.81 · 1.5 = 14715
m2

N
P2 = 1000 · 9.81 · 3.0 = 29430
m2
In order to calculate the reactions required on the plate we need an equivalent system
of forces and their line(s) of action. As the pressure distribution is trapezoidal, the lines
of action (centroid of the loading) is easier to calculate by considering the trapezoidal
distribution of loading to be the sum of rectangular and triangular pressure distributions
as shown in figure 6.25. The area of the plate is

A = 1.5 × 1.5 = 2.25m2

Therefore the equivalent forces F1 and F2 are

F1 = Pavg1 · A = P1 · 2.25 = 33.11kN

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p p
1 0 1

F1
F = F2
+

p p p p
2 2 1 1

Figure 6.25: Decomposition of pressure distributions

which acts half way (0.75 m) down the plate.

1
F1 = Pavg1 · A = (P2 − P1 ) · 2.25 = 16.55kN
2
which acts 2/3 down (1.0 m) from the top of the plate.
With an equivalent system of forces calculated we can now compute the reactions required
for equilibrium of the plate. The free body diagram of the plate is shown in figure 6.26.
Taking moments about A

A
RA
.75 m
1.0 m
F1

F2

B RB

Figure 6.26: Free body diagram of the plate

F1 × 0.75 + F2 × 1.0 − RB × 1.5 = 0 (6.7)

33.11 × 0.75 + 16.55 × 1.0 = RB × 1.5
=⇒ RB = 27.6kN
And summing the forces in the x direction
F ! + F 2 = RA + RB (6.8)
=⇒ RA = 22.1kN

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Tutorial 10
Calculate the equivalent force exerted by the water against the inclined surface of a sea
wall AB shown in figure 6.27. The fluid is sea water which has a mass density of 1025
kg/m3 at 25◦ C. The depth of water h is 10 m and the angle of the wall θ is 60◦ . Consider
the sea wall to be very long.
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Figure 6.27: Tutorial 10

Tutorial 11
A cross section AB of a square plate is covering a hole in a section of a wall shown in
figure 6.28. Taking the density of the fluid to be 1025 kg·m3 , h1 = 3 m, h2 = 2.5 m and
w = 1.5 m. Calculate the reactions normal to the wall surface that would be required to
maintain the equilibrium of the plate.
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Figure 6.28: Tutorial 11

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Fluid pressure on any shaped surface

We have previously dealt with problems where we could only consider fluid exerting
pressure on a flat surface. We shall develop a simple method for calculating the equivalent
forces on any shaped surface. However, we will only calculate the force components and
not the line of action of the equivalent force.
To illustrate the simple method we shall use for any shaped surface we will begin by
examining a problem we are already familiar with for a flat surface.

Example 8
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Centroids - Example 8

We wish to know the horizontal and vertical components of the equivalent force on the
sea wall in figure 6.29. The fluid is sea water which has a mass density of 1025 kg/m3
at 25◦ C. The depth of water h is 10 m and the angle of the wall θ is 60◦ . Consider the
sea wall to be very long. Instead of considering the distribution of fluid pressure normal
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Figure 6.29: Example 8

to the wall as we have previously done. We will directly examine the horizontal pressure
and vertical weight of water as shown in figure 6.30. The equivalent horizontal force
exerted by the fluid is calculated from the fluid pressure with depth and the fact that
fluid pressure at a point acts the same in all directions, therefore the horizontal force FH
can be calculated as
1
FH = (PH − P0 ) · A
2
Where PH is the pressure at depth H, P0 is the pressure at the surface (=0) and A is
the area upon which the pressure is acting over. Therefore
1
FH = ρgh · A (6.9)
2
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Figure 6.30: Horizontal and vertical components of fluid pressure

In this case the area A is not the area of sea wall, but rather a virtual rectangle that the
pressure is acting on horizontally as shown on the left hand side of figure 6.31 therefore

area A volume V
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Figure 6.31: Area and volume of pressure components

A=h·1
Finally
1
FH = · 1025 · 9.81 · 102 = 503kN (per m of wall)
2
The vertical component of the equivalent force, can be calculated from the weight of
water that is acting on the inclined surface. We therefore first need to calculate the
volume of water V acting directly above the sea wall, as shown in figure 6.31. Firstly we
calculate the width of water b
h 10
b= = = 5.77m
tan θ tan 60◦
and therefore the volume V is
1 1
V = · b · h · 1 = · 5.77 · 10 (6.10)
2 2
= 28.87 m3

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The mass M of water can be calculated from M = ρV and hence the weight w is

w = M g = ρV g = 1025 · 28.87 · 9.81 (6.11)

= 290.3 kN.

Tutorial 12
Calculate the horizontal and vertical force components of the fluid on the curved surface
in figure 6.32. The surface is a quarter circle with radius R = 2.5 m, the fluid is water
with density = 1000 kg/m3 and the out-of-plane width is 4 m.

Figure 6.32: Tutorial 12

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Tutorial 13
We now wish to compute the horizontal and vertical force components exerted by the
fluid on the inclined surface shown in figure 6.33. Take γ = 9810 N/m3 , a = 4 m, b = 3
m and c = 4 m. We first need to break down the horizontal and vertical components into

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Figure 6.33: Tutorial 13

parts as shown in figure 6.33 The problem is treated in an identical manner to Example

Figure 6.34: Tutorial 13 - pressure on submerged surface

6.4, but we need to account for the depth that the surface is submerged. The horizontal
force is therefore now calculated from a trapezoidal distribution of pressure.
1
FH = (Pb − Pa ) · A + Pa · A
2
FH =
To calculate the vertical component of the force we can still consider the weight w of the
wedge shaped block of water above the surface, but must now add the weight of water
above that too.
w=
The final component FV 1 can be calculated in 2 ways:

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1. the downward pressure can be calculated from Pv = ρga and then converted to
force by multiplying by the horizontal area that it is acting over, or

2. using the weight of the rectangular column of water.

Fv1 =
Finally, we can combine the two vertical components, into a single force FV
Fv =

Tutorial 14
Calculate the horizontal and vertical components exerted by the fluid on the quarter
circular surface shown below. Take the fluid density ρ = 1000 kg/m3 , the radius R = 3
m and the depth that the surface is submerged a = 5 m.

Figure 6.35: Tutorial 14

FH =
FV =

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Internal Forces - shear forces and

bending moments

101
© University of Adelaide Statics

7.1 Learning Outcomes

Engineers need to know the internal forces in members in order to design adequate
components to resist them.

• Compute the internal forces in beams.

• Construct Bending moment and Shear force diagrams.

• Formulate Bending moment and Shear force equations.

7.2 Types of internal forces

The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Internal Forces - Introduction

A member can be subject to four types of internal forces, as shown in figure 7.1.

Loading Deformation

Axial

Shear

Bending

Torsion

Figure 7.1: Types of internal forces encountered

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7.3 Shear Forces

The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Internal Forces - Shear Force Diagram

Shear forces are unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in opposing directions. In
order to tell in which direction the body is deforming, we use a sign convention as shown
in figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2: Shear forces on a body

• Forces pointing up on the left and down on the right of a body are considered to
be positive.

• Other engineers may use the opposite sign convention, therefore always make clear
in calculations and drawings the sign convention that you are adopting.

note, this is only a convention, the “up on the left, down on the right” system of forces
representing a positive shear force may differ in different texts and is merely a choice,
not right or wrong.
We will demonstrate the calculation of shear forces by way of an example.

Example 1
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Internal Forces - Shear Force Diagram

What are the shear forces experienced by the beam in figure 7.3 ? Before we can proceed
to calculate the internal forces, we must first evaluate the external forces. Applying the
equations of equilibrium, we can obtain the reaction forces.
F
RAy = RBy =
2
To determine the internal forces, as with the method of sections used for the analysis of
trusses, we make a virtual cut in our beam where we wish to evaluate the shear force.

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A B

L/2 L/2

Figure 7.3: Example 1 - Simply supported beam with a point load

x
A
V

F/2

L/2

Figure 7.4: Free body diagram of “cut” portion of the beam

We then draw a free body diagram of one side of the cut (figure 7.4) The cut is made on
the right hand side of the portion, and therefore if the beam is experiencing a positive
shear force, the shear force V at this end would need to act downwards. Applying the
equation of equilibrium vertically, gives
∑ F
Fy = 0 =⇒ −V = 0
2
F
V = +
2
As the shear force V is pointing downwards on the right hand edge of the cut portion
and the reaction force is pointing upwards on the left hand edge, the shear force on the
entire portion is said to be acting in a positive manner. The free body diagram in figure
7.4 is applicable right from the left hand edge A of the beam, right until the application
of the load at x = L/2.
We will now evaluate the shear force in the portion of the beam to the right of the point
load. Again drawing a free body diagram (figure 7.5) of a portion of the beam, cut at a
point where we wish to evaluate the internal forces.

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F/2

L/2

Figure 7.5: Free body diagram of cut to the right of the load

∑ F
Fy = 0 =⇒ −F −V = 0
2
F
V = −
2
We can use the knowledge obtained to draw a graphical representation of the shear forces
that the entire beam would experience. This graphical representation is called a Shear
Force Diagram, and for the beam and loading analysed is shown in figure 7.6.

A B

F/2

F/2

L/2 L/2

Figure 7.6: Shear force diagram

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Example 2
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Internal Forces - Example 2

We will analyse another beam, with more loading, to show the general procedure for
calculating shear forces and drawing Shear Force Diagrams. In this example, we again
have a beam of length L, subject to 3 point loadings of magnitude F/3 equally spaced
at intervals of L/4 along the beam, as shown in figure 7.7.

F/3 F/3 F/3

A B

L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4

Figure 7.7: Example 2 - Schematic diagram of beam and loading

Step 1 - evaluate reactions

• Draw FBD of full system

• Apply equations of equilibrium

F
RAy = RBy =
2

Step 2 (formal procedure) – Evaluate equilibrium of cut portions of the beam

• Cut the beam wherever there is a change in the loading (the shear force will remain
constant if no further loading is applied).

• Draw FBD of portion and evaluate vertical equilibrium. Write a function for the
shear force, that is valid for the interval along the beam being considered.

Step 2 (informal procedure)

• Draw a vertical line proportional to the magnitude of the applied loading and in
the direction of the loading, whenever a load (including reactions) is encountered.

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L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4

F/3
F/2
F/3
A B

F/3 F/2

Figure 7.8: Example 2 - Shear force diagram

In figure 7.8 the shear force diagram for the beam and loading scenario is sketched. At
the left hand end, the beam felt a reaction force of F/2 acting in the positive y direction.
A vertical line is drawn at this point. As we “walk” along the beam, we next encounter
a loading of F/3 pointing downwards at L/4, we continue this walk, drawing vertical
lines when loads are encountered, finishing with a line proportional to the reaction F/2
at the right hand side.
Note, if the forces have been evaluated correctly, then the shear force diagram should
return back to 0.

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Example 3
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Internal Forces - Example 3

The procedure developed in the last section, was perfectly workable when a beam is
subject to point loadings only. We therefore require to know how to proceed when
encountering a distributed loading.
We will examine the simply supported beam in figure 7.9 of length L, subject to a
uniformly distributed loading intensity w.

A B

Figure 7.9: Example 3 - beam subjected to a uniformly distributed load

Reactions

wL
RAy = RBy =
2

Equilibrium of the cut portion

∑ wL
Fy = 0 =⇒ − wx − V = 0
2
wL
V = − wx
2
We can therefore see from this function that the shear force varies linearly in response
to a uniformly distributed load. Also of note is that the function is valid for the entire
beam in this case.
Evaluating this function at various points along the beam reveals

• for x < L2 , V = +ve

• for x = L2 , V = 0

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A V

wL/2

Figure 7.10: FBD of a portion of the beam

• for x > L2 , V = −ve

Knowing the signs and magnitudes of our shear forces, along with the shape of the
function allows us to draw the shear force diagram (figure 7.11).

wL
2
0

wL
2

L/2 L/2

Figure 7.11: Shear force diagram

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Tutorial 1
A simply supported beam has a total length L = 12 m and is subjected to two point
loads F1 and F2 as shown in figure 7.12. Draw the shear force diagram if F1 = 5 kN and

F1 F2

A B

L/2 L/4 L/4

Figure 7.12: Tutorial 1

F2 = 8 kN.

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Example 4
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Internal Forces - Example 4

We shall now apply the techniques used for drawing the shear force diagrams for simply
supported beams to the cantilever beam in figure 7.13. Taking L = 7 m and W = 150
N.

L
Figure 7.13: Example 4 - point load on a cantilever

Reactions

RAy = W

Shear force diagram

W W

L
Figure 7.14: Example 4 - point load on a cantilever

In this case it would have also been possible to draw the shear force diagram without
evaluating the reactions, by analysing portions of the beam from left to right.

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Example 5
Draw the shear force diagram for the beam shown in figure 7.15

A B
C

L L/2

Figure 7.15: Example 5 - point load on a cantilever

Reactions
Taking moments about A to get the reaction at B
∑ 3L
MA = 0 =⇒ RBy · L − F · = 0
2
3F
RRy =
2
Summing the forces in the y direction to obtain the vertical reaction at A

RAy + RBy − F = 0

Substituting for RBy

3F
RAy + −F = 0
2
1
RAy = − F
2

Shear Force Diagram

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(3/2)F
-F

-(1/2)F

Figure 7.16: Example 5 - shear force diagram

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Tutorial 2
Draw the shear force diagram for the cantilever beam in figure 7.17. Hints:

B
A

Figure 7.17: Tutorial 2

Determine the vertical reactions at A

What is the shear force just to the left of B?
The shear force diagram for a UDL is linear.

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Tutorial 3
Draw the shear force diagram for the beam in 7.18, take L = 10 m and w = 5 kN/m.
w

L/4 L/2 L/4

A B

Figure 7.18: Tutorial 3

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7.4 The relationship between shear force and loading

The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Internal Forces - Shear force : Load relationship

Consider a portion of a beam in figure 7.19, with some distribution of loading upon it.
We examine a small element of this beam and draw the free body diagram (figure 7.20).

Figure 7.19: Portion of a beam subject to arbitrary loading

Examining vertical equilibrium

w (average over dx)

V V + dV

dx
Figure 7.20: FBD of a beam element

∑
Fy = 0 =⇒ V − w · dx − (V + dV ) = 0

After rearranging, this becomes

dV
w=− (7.1)
dx
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where the minus sign indicates the downward direction of the loading. This can be
rewritten as
∫ V ∫ x
=− w dx
V0 x0

Therefore the shear force at a point x is the known shear V0 at a point x0 minus total
loading on the beam in between the points x and x0 .

Example 6
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Internal Forces - Example 6

Write the shear force equations for the various sections of the beam shown in figure 7.21,
and subsequently draw the shear force diagram. Take the loading to be F = 10 kN,

w1
w2 F

2m 1m 3m 1m 3m
A B C D E F

Figure 7.21: Example 6

w1 = 5 kN/m and w2 = 2 kN/m.

Reactions
Taking moments about point B
∑ 2 5
MB = 0 =⇒ (w1 · 2) × + REy × 5 = (w2 · 3) × + 10 × 8
2 2
Here we have written the equation of equilibrium with all anti-clockwise moments on
one side of the equation and clockwise moment on the other. Substituting the known
values of the loads, gives

10 + 5REy = 15 + 80

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And rearranging yields

85
REy = = 17 kN
5
Taking vertical equilibrium
∑
Fy = 0 =⇒ RBy + REy = (w1 · 2) + (w2 · 3) + F
Substituting for the loadings and the reaction RE y, gives
RBy = 9kN (7.2)
We now draw free body diagrams for each section of the beam where we encounter a
change in the loading.

Section AB
We begin, as usual, by converting our real life scenario into a free body diagram (figure
7.22), by making a virtual cut somewhere along the section of the beam between the
point A and B. As we are making our cut on the right hand side of the section, we will
assume that our shear force along the section is positive, and therefore we would have
a shear force V pointing downwards using the “up on the left, down on the right” sign
convention adopted. As A is a free end, there is no shear force at this point VA = 0. The

w1

A V

2m
A B

Real Free Body Diagram

Figure 7.22: FBD section AB

total loading
∫x
over section AB is 5 · 2 = 10 kN. Remembering our shear force equation
V = V0 − x0 w dx, gives us
∫ B
V = VA − w1 dx
A
= 0 − (5x)
= −5xkN

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Statics © University of Adelaide

and this equation holds for the region 0 ≤ x ≤ 2 m.

If we imagine the deformation of a small part of section AB, we can verify that the shear
forces would be negative using our sign convention.

Section BC
Making a cut along the beam between points B and C and drawing the free body
diagram (figure 7.23). We can see that the shear force does not vary over the section

w1 VB

A
B V
2m

R By
2m 1m
A B C
x
Real FBD
Figure 7.23: FBD section BC

∫
(− xx0 w dx = 0) ) and is fully defined from the shear force from the section AB and the
reaction force at B. We use the shear force equation derived for section AB and obtain
the value at x = 2 m (i.e. point B) and add the reaction at B to get our value for V0 .
∫ x
V = V0 − w dx
x0
= −(5 · 2) + 9
= −1kN 2m ≤ x ≤ 3m

Section CD
We can calculate the shear force at C to get the shear force at the left hand side of the
section

V0 = −1kN
∫x
Now examining the change in the shear force over the section x0 w dx = W2 (x − 3),
therefore the shear force equation for the section is

V = 1 − −W2 (x − 3) 3m ≤ x ≤ 6m

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Figure 7.24: FBD section CD

Section DE
We use the shear force equation for section CD to obtain the value of the shear force at
x = 6 m.

V0 = −1 − (2 · 3) = −7kN

This is again constant across the section, hence

V0 = −7kN 6m ≤ x ≤ 7m

Section EF
Evaluating the shear force at x = 7 m and the reaction force REy we get

V0 = −7 + 17
= 10kN

and as there is no loading on the section until we get to point F , the shear force equation
for the section is

V = 10kN 7m ≤ x ≤ 10m

Point F
At point F the point load of 10 kN is applied,

V = V0 − 10
= 0

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VE F

E V F

REy

Figure 7.25: FBD section EF

V (kN) section x (m)

−5x AB 0≤x≤2
−1 BC 2≤x≤3
−1 − w2 (x − 3) CD 3≤x≤6
−7 DE 6≤x≤7
10 EF 7 ≤ x ≤ 10
0 F x = 10

Table 7.1: Final shear force equations for the entire beam

Final Shear equations and diagram

The shear force equations are collected together in table 7.1 We can then use these to
draw our shear force diagram, as shown in figure 7.26.

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Figure 7.26: FBD section EF

122 CHAPTER 7. INTERNAL FORCES - SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING

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Tutorial 4
Write the shear force equations for the three regions of the beam shown in figure 7.27,
take L = 10 m and w = 5 kN/m.

L/4 L/2 L/4

A B

Figure 7.27: Tutorial 4

V (kN) Region (m)

0 ≤ x ≤ L4
L
4
≤ x ≤ 3L
4
3L
4
≤ x ≤ L

Example 7
On occasion it is useful to find out where our shear force is maximum, minimum or even
equal to zero. This example will show how to use the shear force equations to find where
the shear force is zero on the beam in figure 7.28.

10 kN/m

5 kN/m

12 m
A B

Figure 7.28: Example 7

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Reactions
We will split the distributed loading into rectangular and triangular portions, so that
the point of action of the resultant forces is simpler to calculate.
∑ 1
MB = 0 =⇒ (5 · 12) × 6 + (5 · 12) × 4 = RBy × 12
2
RBy = 40 kN

∑
Fy = 0 =⇒ RAy + RBy = 60 + 30
RAy = 50 kN

Shear Force equation

∫x
In order to write the shear force equation using V = V0 − x0 w dx we need to write the
loading as a function of x.

w(x) = 10 f rac512x

Drawing a free body diagram of a portion of the beam from A, as shown in figure 7.29
Hence, the shear force equation can be written as
10 kN/m

50 kN

x
A

Figure 7.29: FBD

∫ x
5
V = 50 − 10 − x dx
0 12
5 2
= 50 − 10x + x +c
24
We can now evaluate where the shear force is zero, by solving the quadratic equation
5 2
V = 0 = 50 − 10x + x
24
124 CHAPTER 7. INTERNAL FORCES - SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING
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which has the two roots

x1 = 42.33 or x2 = 5.67m

However, only the root x2 makes sense for this problem.

Tutorial 5
Write the shear force equation and draw the shear force diagram for the beam in figure
7.30.
12 kN/m

0 kN/m

6m
A B

Figure 7.30: FBD

• determine the equivalent point loading and its location

• determine the vertical reactions, check [24kN, 12kN]

• determine the equation for the loading

• The loading is linearly varying, therefore the shear force is quadratic.

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7.5 Bending Moments

The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Internal Forces - Bending moments 1

Bending is the result of moments acting on a body in opposing directions as shown

in figure 7.31 Again, we adopt a sign convention in order to indicate the direction of

Figure 7.31: Bending moments and deformed shape

bending. This can be crucial in design, for example in reinforced concrete beams, where
reinforcing bars are generally positioned in regions where tension is expected.

Example 8
Using the method of sections we will determine the bending moments in the beam shown
in figure 7.32. We first need to compute our reaction forces, in this case as there are no

A B

L/2 L/2

Figure 7.32: Example 8 - Simply supported beam with a point load

horizontal forces present we only have vertical reactions.

∑
F y = 0 → RA + RB − W = 0

126 CHAPTER 7. INTERNAL FORCES - SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING

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And from symmetry (or taking moments)

W
RA = RB =
2
To calculate the bending moment, we again use the method of sections. Making an
imaginary cut in our beam and draw the free body diagram, as with shear force equations
we will need to cut the beam up into regions whenever there is a point load (or reaction
force) applied.

Considering the region 0 ≤ x ≤ L

2

Mx

W/2

Figure 7.33: FBD 0 ≤ x ≤ L

2

Taking moments about the distance x where we have made our cut

Wx
Mx = (7.3)
2
This equation is applicable for the entire region 0 ≤ x ≤ L2 . If we draw the deformed
shape of a portion of the beam in the region we are considering we would expect to see
the deformed shape shown in figure 7.34 We choose by convention to call this ‘sagging’
of a beam to be a positive bending moment. We can also compute the bending moment
that would be experienced by the beam at the centre, by substituting x = L2 into our
expression above

WL
ML =
2 4
For the loading case considered this is the maximum bending moment. This value is
particularly useful to know for design purposes.

Considering the region L

2
≤x≤L
The free body diagram is shown in figure 7.35 Again taking moments about our cut

CHAPTER 7. INTERNAL FORCES - SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING 127

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+ve

deformed shape
Figure 7.34: Deformed shape and sign convention

Mx

W/2

L/2

Figure 7.35: FBD 0 ≤ x ≤ L

2

( )
Wx L
Mx = −W x−
2 2
Multiplying out the bracket in the second term on the right hand side and collecting like
terms gives
WL Wx
Mx = −
2 2
Alternatively, we could choose to define a new coordinate axis x′ which has its origin
at the right hand side of the beam as shown in figure 7.36 and therefore the bending
moment would now be expressed as
W x′
M x′ = (7.4)
2
With our expressions for the bending moments over the two regions established, we can
draw our bending moment diagram.

128 CHAPTER 7. INTERNAL FORCES - SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING

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Mx’

W/2

x’

Figure 7.36: Alternative coordinate system

0 L

M WL/4

Figure 7.37: Bending moment diagram

Note that although we have chosen that a ‘sagging’ deformed shape will give
a positive bending moment, we will choose to draw our bending moment
diagram ‘upside down’. This is extremely common in structural engineer-
ing and becomes very useful when drawing the bending moment diagrams
for structures that have members that are not just horizontal and therefore
it becomes useful to draw the bending moments on the tension side of a
member.

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Tutorial 6
A beam is subject to a series of point loads as shown in figure 7.38. Determine the
bending moment at any point along the beam and draw the bending moment diagram.
First compute the reactions

F/3 F/3 F/3

A B

L/4 L/4 L/4 L/4

Figure 7.38: Bending moments tutorial 6

Ry(x=0) = (7.5)
Ry(x=L) =

Draw the free body diagrams for each of the four regions of interest and write the
expressions for the bending moments in each region.
FBD 0 ≤ x ≤ L4

FBD L
4
≤x≤ L
2

FBD L
2
≤x≤ 3L
4

130 CHAPTER 7. INTERNAL FORCES - SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING

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FBD 3L
4
≤x≤L

Therefore the final bending moment diagram is (remember to draw on the tension side
of the beam)

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Example 9
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Internal forces - Bending moments 2

We will now consider a beam in figure 7.39 that has a uniformly distributed loading on
it. We will use a small w to denote the load intensity, to distinguish form point loads
where we use a capital W . We begin again by calculating the reactions
w

A B

Figure 7.39: Bending moments tutorial 6

wL
RA = RB =
2
The free body diagram of a portion of the beam is drawn in figure 7.40 The uniformly

A
Mx

wL/2

Figure 7.40: Bending moments tutorial 6 FBD

distributed loading over the portion can be converted to an equivalent point loading, with
its line of action at the centroid of the loading block. We can now write an expression
for the bending moment at the cut, by taking moments at this point
wL x
Mx = · x − FR ·
2 2
132 CHAPTER 7. INTERNAL FORCES - SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING
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The magnitude of the equivalent force for this loading is

FR = w · x
x
And its line of action is 2
from the cut, therefore

wLx wx2
Mx = −
2 2
We can see immediately that the expression is that of a quadratic and that it is pertinent
over the entire beam.
From intuition we know that the maximum bending moment for this loading will occur
at the mid-span. Substituting x = L2 into our expression we get
( )2
L L w L
Mmax = w · − (7.6)
2 2 2 2
wL2 w L2
= − ·
4 2 4
2
wL wL2
= −
4 8
wL2
=
8
Finally, we the bending moment diagram is drawn in figure 7.41

0 L

2
wL
8
Figure 7.41: Bending moment diagram of a simply supported beam subject to a UDL

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Example 10
We will now examine the bending moments on a cantilever due to point load on the free
end as shown in figure 7.42 By sketching the deflected shape (figure 7.43), and imagining

Figure 7.42: Cantilever subject to a point load at its tip

a deformed portion of the cantilever beam, we can deduce that the bending moments will
be negative along the entire span. Drawing the free body diagram for the entire span of
-ve

Figure 7.43: Deformed shape of a cantilever

the cantilever (figure 7.44) We can calculate the vertical reaction at A from equilibrium
x W

MA

RAy

Figure 7.44: FBD of cantilever

in the y direction
RAy − W = 0 (7.7)
RAy = W

134 CHAPTER 7. INTERNAL FORCES - SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING

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and the bending moment at A, from taking moments (here we choose about point A)

MA = −W L

Using the method of sections, we can draw the free body diagram of a portion of the
beam (figure 7.45) and write an expression for the bending moment
x
A

MA Mx

Figure 7.45: FBD of a portion of the cantilever from the fixed support

Mx = −MA + RAy · x (7.8)

= −W L + W x

Or we could choose to use an alternative coordinate system with the origin at the tip
of the cantilever. The free body diagram is shown in figure 7.46 There are no reactions

Mx’ B

x’

Figure 7.46: FBD of a portion of the cantilever from the tip

on the free body diagram using this coordinate axis, therefore we can write our bending
moment expression without calculating the reactions first.

Mx′ = −W x′

We can now draw the bending moment diagram (figure 7.47)

CHAPTER 7. INTERNAL FORCES - SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING 135

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-FL

+M

Figure 7.47: Bending moment diagram

Tutorial 7
Write an expression for the bending moment and draw the bending moment diagram for
the beam shown in figure 7.48

B
A

Figure 7.48: Tutorial 7

136 CHAPTER 7. INTERNAL FORCES - SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING

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Tutorial 8
Write bending moment expressions and draw the bending moment diagram for the beam
shown in figure 7.49. Take L = 6 m and W = 5 kN.

A B
C

L L/2

Figure 7.49: Tutorial 8

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Tutorial 9
For the beam shown in figure 7.50:

• Write bending moment expressions and draw the bending moment diagram.

• Calculate the maximum bending moment and its location.

12 kN/m

0 kN/m

6m
A B

Figure 7.50: Tutorial 9

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Tutorial 10
Write bending moment expressions and draw the bending moment diagram for the struc-
ture in figure 7.51, take L = 10 m and w = 5 kN/m.
w

L/4 L/2 L/4

A B

Figure 7.51: Tutorial 10

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Tutorial 11
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Internal Forces - Point moments

Write bending moment expressions and draw the bending moment diagram for the struc-
ture in figure 7.52
30 kN.m
A B

3m 3m

Figure 7.52: Tutorial 11

140 CHAPTER 7. INTERNAL FORCES - SHEAR FORCES AND BENDING

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7.6 The relationship between bending moments and

shear forces
The accompanying video for this content can be found via the following hyperlink
Statics - Internal Forces - Shear Force-Bending moment relationship

We consider a small portion of a beam subject to a distributed loading as shown in figure

7.53 Zooming into this portion of the beam, we can draw the free body diagram of a

Figure 7.53: Portion of a beam subject to an arbitrary distributed loading

differential element (figure 7.54) Taking moments about point o

w (average over dx)

V V + dV

dx
Figure 7.54: FBD of a differential element

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dx
−M − w · dx · − (V + dV ) · dx + M + dM = 0
2
If we omit the higher order terms (dx2 and dv · dx), and rearrange, we get

dM
V = (7.9)
dx
And from the relationship between loads and shear forces

d2 M
= −w (7.10)
dx2
We can therefore determine the location of maximum / minimum bending moments from

dM
V = =0
dx
i.e. where the shear force is zero, the bending moment must be a maximum or minimum.
This can help us to self-check our calculations.

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