Chapter I: Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and Classifica on of Soils

Chapter I
Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and
Classifica on of Soils

Lesson 2

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Chapter I: Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and Classifica on of Soils

I.4.4. Soil Iden fica on Characteris cs

To perform soil identification, a series of laboratory and field tests are conducted to determine
the physical and mechanical characteristics of the soil. The process begins with a visual
inspection, where the color, texture, moisture, and plasticity are observed to obtain an initial
classification. Next, a grain size analysis is carried out to determine the distribution of particle
sizes: sieve analysis is used for coarse soils (particles larger than 80 μm), while sedimentation
analysis is applied to fine soils (particles smaller than 80 μm) based on Stokes’ law. The results
are plotted on a grain size distribution curve, from which coefficients such as the uniformity
coefficient (Cu) and the curvature coefficient (Cc) are calculated. For sandy soils, the sand
equivalent test is performed to evaluate the cleanliness and measure the amount of fine
particles. The relative density or SPT test is then used to assess the degree of compaction of
granular soils. For fine-grained (cohesive) soils, Atterberg limits (liquid limit, plastic limit) are
determined to define the soil’s plasticity and consistency. These values allow calculation of
the plasticity index (Ip), which helps in classifying the soil as silty, clayey, or highly plastic.
Finally, all results are combined to classify the soil using standard systems providing essential
information for geotechnical design and construction.

[Link]. Grain Size Analysis

Grain size analysis is one of the most fundamental tests in soil mechanics used to determine
the distribu on of par cle sizes within a soil sample. It provides essen al informa on for
classifying the soil and understanding its engineering behavior. The objec ve of the test is to
establish the percentage of different grain sizes and represent them graphically on a grain size
distribu on curve. Two main methods are commonly used:

 By sieving: for particles with a diameter ≥ 80 μm (or 63 μm). In sieve analysis, a

representa ve soil sample is first dried and then passed through a stack of sieves with
progressively smaller openings. The mass retained on each sieve is measured to
calculate the percentage of material passing or retained. The results are plo ed on a
semi-logarithmic graph, where the x-axis represents the par cle size (log scale) and the
y-axis shows the percentage passing.

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Chapter I: Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and Classifica on of Soils

Figure 3: sieve analysis test

 By sedimentation: for particles with a diameter ≤ 80 μm (or 63 μm). For fine soils, a
hydrometer (sedimentation) test is used, based on Stokes’ law, which relates the
settling velocity of particles in a fluid to their diameter, density, and the fluid’s
viscosity. This method allows estimation of silt and clay fractions.

Figure 4: hydrometer test

The results of the grain size analysis are presented on a semi-logarithmic graph called the grain
size distribution curve (Figure 5).

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Chapter I: Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and Classifica on of Soils

Figure 5: Grain size distribu on test

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Chapter I: Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and Classifica on of Soils

From this curve, two key coefficients are determined:

 Coefficient of Curvature: 𝐶 =
 Coefficient of Uniformity (Hazen): 𝐶 =

With Di: particle diameter corresponding to I % of cumulative passing.

According to the standard XP 9 94-011, the typical values are (as mentioned in table 2 in XP
9 94-011):

 Well-Graded Gravel: Cu > 4 and 1 < Cc < 3

 Well-Graded Sand: Cu > 6 and 1 < Cc < 3
 Cc < 1 or Cc > 3: Soils with Cc values outside this range are generally considered poorly
graded

In the literature

 Well-Graded soil: Cu > 5

 Poorly-Graded soil: Cu < 5

[Link]. Iden fica on of Coarse-Grained (Granular) Soils

The most common tests are the Sand Equivalent Test (ES%), which measures the cleanliness
and amount of fine particles in the sand, and the Relative Density (ID) test, which determines
the degree of compaction or denseness of the soil

Sand Equivalent Test (ES%)

The Sand Equivalent Test (ES%) is performed to assess the cleanliness and quality of sand,
particularly by measuring the proportion of fine particles such as silt and clay present in the
sample. This test is essential in evaluating whether a granular material is suitable for
construction purposes, especially in roadworks and concrete production.

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Chapter I: Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and Classifica on of Soils

The test is conducted on the soil fraction with particle sizes smaller than 5 mm. The prepared
sample is placed in a graduated cylinder and mixed with a calcium chloride (CaCl₂) solution,
which acts as a flocculating agent. After vigorous agitation, the mixture is allowed to settle.
During this process, the heavier sand particles settle at the bottom of the cylinder, while the
lighter fine particles, flocculated and suspended by the CaCl₂ solution, remain in the upper
portion (as illustrated in Figure 6).

Once the layers are clearly separated, the heights of the sand layer and the suspension layer
are measured. The Sand Equivalent (ES%) value is then calculated as the ratio of the height of
the sand layer to the total height of the suspension, multiplied by 100.

𝐻
𝐸𝑆 = 𝑥 100
𝐻

A higher ES% value indicates a cleaner sand with fewer fines, which generally means
better quality and improved performance in engineering applications. Conversely, a low
ES% suggests significant fine content, which may negatively affect.

Figure 6: Sand equivalent test

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Chapter I: Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and Classifica on of Soils

Soil Type (Nature) Sand Equivalent (E.S.)

Pure clay E.S. = 0
Plastic soil E.S. = 20
Non-plastic soil E.S. = 40
Clean and pure sand E.S. = 100

Rela ve Density (ID)

Rela ve density or density index is the ra o of the difference between the void ra os of a
cohesionless soil in its loosest state and exis ng natural state to the difference between its
void ra o in the loosest and densest states. Porosity of soil depends on the shape of grain,
uniformity of grain size, and condi on of sedimenta on. Hence, porosity itself does not
indicate whether the soil is in a loose or dense state. This informa on can only be obtained by
comparing the porosity or void ra o of the given soil with that of the same soil in its loosest
and densest possible state. hence the term, rela ve density is introduced.

𝑒 −𝑒
𝐼 =
𝑒 −𝑒

Or equivalently:

𝛾 𝛾 −𝛾
𝐼 =
𝛾 𝛾 −𝛾

Where:

 e: void ratio of soil;

 𝑒 : void ratio of cohesionless soil in its loosest state,
 𝑒 : void ratio of cohesionless soil in its densest state,
 𝛾 : dry unit weight,
 𝛾 ,𝛾 : maximum and minimum dry unit weights.

To determine eₘₐₓ and eₘᵢₙ in the laboratory, we perform two different tests on a dry,
cohesionless soil (such as sand). To find eₘₐₓ (the void ra o in the loosest state), the soil is
poured loosely into a mold without any compac on or vibra on, following the method in
ASTM D4254 (or NF P94-060). The dry unit weight is calculated, and then eₘₐₓ is computed
𝑮 𝜸𝒘
using: 𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝜸 𝒔 −𝟏
𝒅𝒎𝒊𝒏

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Chapter I: Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and Classifica on of Soils

To find eₘᵢₙ (the void ra o in the densest state), the soil is placed in the same mold and
densified using vibra on or tamping (without water) according to ASTM D4253 (or NF P94-
059). The resul ng maximum dry unit weight γdmax is then used to compute

𝑮𝒔 𝜸𝒘
𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒏 = −𝟏
𝜸𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙

Alternatively, SPT (Standard Penetration Test) results can be correlated with :

Relative ID < 0.20 0.20 ≤ ID < 0.40 ≤ ID < 0.60 ≤ ID < ID ≥ 0.80
Density (ID) 0.40 0.60 0.80
N (SPT) <4 4 – 10 10 – 30 30 – 50 > 50
Soil State / Very loose Loose Medium Dense Very dense
Degree of dense
Compaction
Terzaghi & Peck (1967) and Bowles (1996)

[Link]. Iden fica on of Fine-Grained (Cohesive) Soils

The behavior of fine-grained (cohesive) soils is largely controlled by their mineralogical

composi on, soil structure, and water content. The type of clay minerals present, such as
kaolinite, illite, or montmorillonite, significantly affects the soil’s plas city and swelling
poten al. The soil structure, whether flocculated or dispersed, also influences its strength and
compressibility. In addi on, varia ons in water content lead to no ceable changes in the soil’s
consistency and mechanical behavior. To evaluate and classify these soils, the A erberg Limits
are commonly used. These limits, which include the Liquid Limit (LL), Plas c Limit (PL), and
Plas city Index (PI), define the boundaries between the different states of consistency—solid,
plas c, and liquid—and provide essen al informa on about the soil’s plas city and its
response to changes in moisture.

A erberg Limits

The A erberg Limits are fundamental tests used to characterize the consistency and
plas city of fine-grained soils. They define the moisture content ranges corresponding to the
solid, plas c, and liquid states of a soil. The two main limits are the Liquid Limit (LL) and the
Plas c Limit (PL), from which the Plas city Index (PI = LL – PL) (figure 07) is derived.

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Chapter I: Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and Classifica on of Soils

The Liquid Limit (LL) represents the water content at which the soil changes from a plas c
to a liquid state. It can be determined using either the Casagrande cup method or the cone
penetrometer method.

 In the Casagrande method (figure 8), a soil paste is placed in a metal cup and a
groove is cut through its center. The cup is repeatedly dropped from a fixed height,
and the LL corresponds to the water content at which the groove closes over a
length of 1 cm a er 25 blows.
 In the cone penetrometer method (figure 09), a standardized cone is allowed to
penetrate the soil paste under its own weight, and the LL is defined as the water
content at which the cone penetrates 20 mm in 5 seconds ( depend the used
standard, for NF P 94-052-1 the cone penetrate 17 mm) .

The Plas c Limit (PL) is the lowest moisture content at which the soil can be rolled into
threads of 3 mm diameter without breaking. The Plas city Index (PI), calculated as the
difference between LL and PL, reflects the soil’s plas city and helps classify it according to its
consistency and clay mineral type.

Figure 7: A erberg limits

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Chapter I: Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and Classifica on of Soils

Figure 8: ATTERBERG limits , Casagrande method

Figure 9: ATTERBERG limits , cone penetrometer method

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Chapter I: Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and Classifica on of Soils

𝑃𝐼 = 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑃𝐿 𝐿𝐿 − 𝑤 𝑤 − 𝑃𝐿
𝐶𝐼 = 𝐿𝐼 =
𝑃𝐼 𝑃𝐼
Plas city Soil type Consistency Consistency Liquidity Index Consistency
index index State State
<1% Non-plas c 𝐶𝐼 ≤ 0 Liquid LI<0 Very hard
(Silty)
1%<PI<7% Clayey Sand 0 < 𝐶𝐼 < 1 Plas c 0 < 𝐿𝐼 ≤ 1 Hard to very
7%<PI< 17% Sandy Clay CI=1 Plas c Solid plas c
PI>17% Clay CI>1 Solid or Semi- LI>1 Fluid
solid

To be con nued in Lesson 3…

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Chapter I: Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and Classifica on of Soils

Exercises
Exercise 01:

A dry sieving test is performed on 3500 g of dry sand. It is first observed that the 12.5 mm sieve
retains no fraction of the material. A column of six sieves is then used, with mesh openings (from top
to bottom): 5 mm, 2 mm, 1 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.2 mm, and 0.08 mm. The retained masses on each sieve
(from top to bottom) are: 217 g, 868 g, 1095 g, 809 g, 444 g, and 39 g.

The fraction passing through the last sieve (collected in the bottom pan) weighs 28 g.

Tasks:

1. Compute the percentage retained and percentage passing for each sieve.
2. Plot the grain size distribution curve (semi-logarithmic plot: particle diameter on log scale, %
passing on linear scale).
3. Determine the uniformity coefficient Cu
4. Determine the curvature coefficient Cc

Exercise 02:

A dry sieving test is carried out on 1000 g of dry sand intended for road embankment (earthworks).
It is first observed that the 12.5 mm sieve retains no fraction of the material.

Cumulative mass Cumulative mass Passing (%)

Sieve size (mm) Mass retained (g)
retained (g) retained (%)
12.5 0
5 62
2 248
1 313
0.5 231
0.2 127
0.08 11
Pan (bottom) 8

Tasks:

1. Complete the table

2. Determine the uniformity coefficient Cu and the curvature coefficient Cc
3. Is the sand well or poor Graded

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Chapter I: Iden fica on, Characteriza on, and Classifica on of Soils

Exercise 03:

The following are the raw results of a liquid limit test performed using the Casagrande device on a
sample of inorganic fine soil taken below the groundwater table. Two plastic limit tests on the same
soil gave results of 26.6% and 29%. The natural water content of the soil is 75%.

Tasks:

1. Determine the liquid limit of this soil

2. Deduce the plasticity index
3. Determine the consistency index and the liquidity index

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