ATOMIC STRUCTURE DYE CCP Welt). a This theory is based on law of mass conservation and law of definite proportions The salient feature's of this theory are : et ce One cnseee n ea OR eae em ona CC ee NRSC UR oe ee oa Oe eC CC ee eT Me eee (v) Atom of element's take part in chemical reaction to form molecule. Pe eRe) SR os aR er eS ee Ree ee positron, neutrino, meson etc. Out of these particles, the electron, proton and the neutron are called fundamental subatomic particles and others are non-fundamental particles. [Jace a) on or (1) It was discovered by JJ. Thomson (1897) and is negatively charged particle. Electron is a component Peace (aetna NM Raker ee CeO RST Ror eee Cec CA ROR LCR cee CR CR Ce SO re a ane Cm eR nee a Ce ey SC Oe ——— cee i Discharge tube experiment for production of cathode rays Oe ned TRC etc aa a (li) Cathode rays produce mechanical effect, as they can rotate the wheel placed in their path, (iii) Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles known as electron. (iv) Cathode rays travel with high speed approaching that of light (ranging between 10 to 10%" cm/sec) ZA(v) Cathode rays can cause fluorescence. —~ ee (vi) Cathode rays heat the object on which they fall due to transfer of kinetic energy to the object. a CO Mra Cnc ae eee ere eee roducet) (vill) Cathode rays possess ionizing power Le, they ionize the gas through which they pass. es ——— (ix) The cathode rays produce scintillation the photographic plates. a OO (x) They can penetrate through thin metallic sheets. (xi) The nature of these rays does not depend upon the nature of gas or the cathode material used in ee ‘The ¢/m (charge to mass ratio) for cathode rays was found to be the same as that for an ¢ i; 6 f (1.76 x10" coloumb per gm). Thus, the cathode rays are a stream of electrons. INote :a ee enn er ee ee eee setae ey through the tube. This is because the gases are poor conductor of electricity. pees, — Othe télevision picture tube is a cathode ray tube in which a picture is produced due to fluorescence on PSone ae cc UCAS eRe ree RR c Ca ee ER ere ee eR eee aT RUSS Oe Eee eRe eee eae Res ne eee eae Reo ec a a PRUE ic ate er er ere cacao hae Siren ra i) iy -7) According to Einstein's theory of relativity, pear r een aes ea Ec — Nena | — Where u= velocity of electron, c= velocity of light. When usc than mass of moving electron (8) Molar mass of electron = Mass of electron x Avogadro number =5.483 x 10 *, Sore ENGIN orr (OpeerCmmccni es Cr) COC memes COs eC Pe ae RS ee es the positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electron: (2) Electron is universal component of matter and takes part in chemical combinations. 13) The physical and chemical properties of an element depend upon the distribution of electrons in outer shells. (MI ee ee eee omen mer can PALES ae Bax) D> 9-10 ny ee ew) amu. Co a VyRN oe 9) (1) Proton was discovered by Goldstein and is positively charged particle. It is a component particle of Core (2) Goldstein (1886) used perforated cathode in the discharge tube and repeated Thomson's experiment EO ea EO eS ee oon fo on ery eee) Cros eon A te ee eg ee ee es OR CEC PT CORR Sc na purer ee eee tao fc ere merc {iv) Anode rays may get deflected by external magnetic field. sdaisaaiaiadat Masso (OR er Ree cee a ee ie aac (vi) The e/m ratio of these rays is smaller than that of electrons. Siena ianiaaaanaonah (vii) Unlike cathode rays, their e/m value is dependent upon the nature of the gas taken in the tube. It is maximum when gas presentin thé tube (hydrogen. Sl COR er enna neers (4) Charge on proton =(1.602 «10 coulomb: Eas ee a OR Cea aecnea een = 1.00728 amu = 1.673 x10 gram = 1837 ofthe mass of electron. (6) Molar mass of proton = mass of proton x Avogadro number = 1.008 (approx), Len ny Canaan Ce enon ee eee (Renee che ee ee one enn eee Ore ees pad das aaa Nog Koon = No (9) Mass of 1 mole of protons is = 1.007 gram. (10f Charge on 1 mole of protons is = 96500 coulombs. cn aa Or eee _—_ pean eGOR use ee cea Myc rae (1) Neutron was discovered bf James Chadwick \(1932) according to the following nuclear reaction, a ee Ee ee a Pad ots eS (2) The reason for the late discovery of neutron was its neutral nature. Oa meek aay Oe een ieee eed cee area (5) Specific charge of a neutron is zero. (6) Density = 1.5 x10 gram /e.. aE cam) aoe (7) 1 mole of neutrons is ~ 1.008 gram. (8) Neutron is heaviest among all the fundamental particles present in an atom. (9) Neutron is an unstable particle. It decays as follows i (10) Neutron is fundamental particle of all the atomic nucleus, except hydrogen or protium. Comparison of mass, charge and specific charge of electron, proton and neutron Ren ee CESS nce Cols et ee Peer or Emacs) Proton(p’) Neutron(a) Enea TCT ct en PetCo Pe CSCC eee eee ay — Relative ~ | 1/1837 ca ed Coulomb (Q) | -1602%10 <2] 41.602%10- 7 | Zero Charge(e) ea ang eeee tng Pad Relative Si Es a re eo) fe PeTeC Se MLSE “Zero Stet at eee Cement cr Erk at aan mec ea and Other non fundamental particles aren) Sri mer men Teer Erna (amu) Positron rr es + 48029 | 0,0005486 | Anderson (1932) ie o 0 o <0.00002 | Pauli (1933) and Fermi (1934) oer a - 48029 | 1.00787 | Chamberlain Sugri (1956) and Dori iee eo) Preriet i + erry Met eC) Reece oF a 48029 | 0.1152 | Anderson (1937) Powell (1947) Ren nea 5 a 48029 | 0.1514 Jpeters o 0 0 (erry (OOP Co eRe ccs Cc pista ated ae (OMe teat ees ese RST a Ce te ee ara 2) Ka eee eee a g ete ear j Na oe where, v = rays frequency aa 2 Pee eg ee 7 we a rae er cu CO oes Ren RoE ee eee ed ce ene Becta eerie — pea (iv) Two different elements can never have identical atomic number. ESL OP Ros Cre LCS en eee an uretceere Crescent ig — Mass number (A) = Number of protons + Number of neutrons or Atomic number (Z) OO Ree ea (ii) Since mass of a proton or a neutron is not a whole number (on atomic weight scale), weight is not Prete eR (ii) The atom of an element X having mass number (A) and atomic number (Z) may be represented by a San - lent —- Se oe eae INote :a POPUP Ue Cnn nn crs to Eee contra crn ecros 1 Negative ion is formed by gaining electrons and positive ion by the loss of electrons. ea Number of lost or gained electrons in positive or negative ion =Number of protons * charge on ion. AA emery Perens Poa [ Por) opens nea eee ()) Mass No.(A) = @ ra a ae (ii) No. ofprotons > _| (ii) No. of neutrons aa Pe COO ace Opera ets even (OL Dnaaon ts (On toes (vi) Position in the periodic table aOpn ne) ee (Oecd Onecare CO mo eos ett a Ener i LC UD ecru eeee ee Se — (res ) (ameneN eS (OMe ss COMO meena table. Oe ay ete eee Che oer ere Dente (Orta es COC Om ee) Cet aes = _— i (OM One me Cement Per ney v Ptecrreteen ate reCay Isotones FY utah cS Ee (v) Position in the periodic table. 2 Oran Once [cue seed: (ore roar (Oe Co Co eee) electrons, protons, neutrons. ferro ae ee COM n are meu Pees etcst One a CY et a ae ry U6 Rane ore (Oneness INS eee i) Electronic configuration eee tens Bren (ORNACRSCPR ONC Oke e eA a) (iil) H”,He,Li*, Be?" Qe) 19} eet eae La Once eee (Ces ae rat a Teer) SCC Ui chemical properties. ORE reo (Cece Ne) cr ae (iv) Cad and Mes Okeeeeenee Note : O in all the elements, tin has maximum number of stable isotopes (ten). Dec er eee Lae er esr ne _ % of Ist isotope x relative mass of Ist isotope +% of 2nd_isotope x relative mass of 2nd_isotope Trsarestr 2000) id) CO, CN, NOC B Pe a ee ee aa a Cee re Zz Ete ane) (ee (b) 20105 (Ceres eae (Come ocd aC soo) ore , A Le anal N - as @ er pt Laas Cea) (e=r) We A eee en ad fv =u2] Oa eR eT BS ee undance of heavier isotope is Om (OR or rd See Oona Ad el ag Coan) RS hes Cee yen Aes en ee =pSe a ae ee eS ena oe hee ees eee Oe RCE Cee het’ Drea) (b) 10,12 (cmae Ome) ieee Gee “ a ra Va & = r Ly ea rt aa Bas 4 ae 3nv8 Ks Perr acas eeTHOMSON'S MODEL OF AeA J ee cok td crs a Coe UL une sir sphere of postive charge in which the electrons are Pee eens CMe eee Smee eat nap sphere of Dd i ce Ue Ra a a een eas ete — Cee ee eee eas pean Pda) te) tee ears tc iS JJ Cr a Ses j pai ‘ep paren Ser er oe Cree bert re er eter eee screen Dead OMe en ce Ue eect ere ane cu ED Rca cco eee (i) A few of them got deflected through small ey ——_ eo nue) Peet et See et ot large deflections (more than 90°) or even Pore eee es ene ey eee Cee scm _—___—> Following conclusions were drawn fromthe above observations () Since most ofthe «-particle went straight through the metal foil undeflected, it means that there must be very large empty space within the atom.~ CS ee eR eee ee nee Ren ted ees eee ee eect ce PC een aregce rete Seg en ST nan eee TSE Ces oe see ke nr ance oe err aes atom is called nucleus It's supposed to be present at the centre ol the atom. ek ec cere ee eeu a te oa Phe ec tests otal on cates Ce haan ngese ter cco a iii a densrt Ce eR CR Eonar Cian teu eet ie ee UL es Ue oer peace eee eee (@ Anatom consists of a heavy positively charged nucleus where all the protons are present aie eh hate aly (@) The yolumeotthe nucleusis very small ands only a minute fraction ofthe total volume of the atom Nucleus has a radius of the order of 10 cm and the atom has a radius of the order of 10% ern Pees here pec nr Cas “Thus radius (size) of the atom is 10° times the radius ofthe nucleus Pec eee ree enc re et ean es ee Where Ry = 1.33% 10 %a constant) and, A = mass number (p +n} Sree ae Perso (4 Thereisan empty space around the nucleus called extra nuclear part. In ths par electrons are [Link] no. of electons in an atom is always equal ono. of protons present inthe nucleus. As the nuclear part of atom is responsible forthe mass ofthe atom, the extra nuclear pat is responsible for its volume. The volume ofthe atom is about 10 times the volume ofthe nucleus ra RSs iad COO Pore eee Fad aad (iv) Electrons revolve found the nucleusin closed orbits with high speeds, See a eee ee em ent eee Boe Distance of closest approach and estimating nuclear dimension from o-particle scattering experiment: Peete ae eed eee etn et teeta ee Co SEES eee ORC e ee eens ee eee ene ay converted into electrostatic potential energy. The distance r, called the distance of closest approach. Nucleus as) At point B, K.E. of d-particle is completely converted to electr ata (2e)(Ze) i arc ees-p m9)eee eA ee ee eee Cecue tec eta cee ee Cee ecm) a CO en ee te) Ce eet ce eet) loss eneray at every turn and move closer and closer to the ‘nucleus following a spiral path. The ultimate result will be that Ca Pe ett tee -d spectrum consists of well defined lines of definite freq iencies (discontinuous). Hence’ the loss of ox of well defined lines of Celine Frequencies (dlscontinuovs| CO ete ence eet ase ee ee en eee ore tenergy by electron is not continuous in an atom. ] Tk A wave is difined as a periodic disturbance in space or in a medium that involves elastic displacement of See ee ee eee eee ee ee cy represents propagation of a periodic disturbance carving eneray. The wave travels at ight angles to the vibratory eet tas Pec ey PN es ee tected Se ee Pee eee a employedin dealing with the waves are described below: favelength 2 (Lambda) Cee ree et eens een Cantor (Cm nner tee tea eee cee eee a7 eee en Inm = 10m, Lem = 10m Cems (Frequency of a wave isdefined as the number of waves which pass through a point in 1 see. CD eA eee aman Ne ee eee a —— i Sei) Na Time taken by a wave to pass through one point. re Pete) Nee Cee eer eta es Co tos ieee rss fe eee ce eeSee a Da eee ed Itis the reciprocal of the wave length that is number of waves present in lem pees oat ar Ceneme Ta) Caen CT eC The amplitude of a wave is defined as the height of crust or depth of trough ar es cereale a] Cee Ce eee aC RC re uc + Itisthe energy transmitted from one body to another in the form of waves and these waves travel in the ‘space with the same speed as light (3 « 10*m/s) and these waves are known as Electromagnetic waves eee ‘The radiant Energy do not need any medium for propogation, Ex: Radio waves, micro waves, Infra red rays, visible rays, ultraviolet rays, x-rays, gama rays and cosmic a Coos 10" Fe Comm oC ca no rr eid Baer Xnys Juv} 1 Tn U EM = rr) is ow wa BOG yo i Gs a a | oe® | He” > Li* > Be (OD ec ert Aaa a Reece ical CE eer K rw’ nh (a) For a particular system [H, He* or Li?) See een hee ee i mA cael Ca (Oe cee anager ae V x Z[n=constant] Thus, we have H < He* —_Lastline or limiting line cree ah Cy Cee ae er ee eect ad Sec SUR aR eto See eran cee Lec ee ea re eee Oe at) n= een ea en eae For first ine of Balmer series eer)Da Solution. eros coc Pero Solution. Cores Cree een eee eer ees see tee eee ee) i i i po R 1 a Treo ae ne? fl tos com Resa eens UCT iter Peseta Eee eas ‘What willbe the shortest and longest wavelength of absorption lines of hydrogen gas containing atoms in ground state ? Give Z = 1, R = 109737.5 EF a as eR ee a rt #2] See Eee 1, esr ee eee te eee? fala Se ae aaa | 2 215 A eee ee ee ee eS) et eee ee ee Se pene eet Tete een ee ete esea cae Peri ad ECs Peay ce eRe enn a Ci ct Cgc n asd 1 a ETOP Es Ta L See esc Te eke ee ee i ee Fed ee Pe SC Ey eee en eee Pe eee Siete eee Ree Peet tered ‘Wave number of line of Balmer series of hydrogen spectrum. Rete eras eet sete een (14 vara 4-4) oe eed ann) pan eee Ere ese rel i ered Maximum 4 of Lyman series _ 1" line of Lyman series oe er na ei rs en een ee en ee een ae Cou Re ca more steps gives rise of 5 lines in the ultra violet region of the spectrum. How many lines does this transition produce in the infra red region ofthe spectrum? ee ees eee eT me ny-l = 5 n, = 6 Eee @ cose ae ee ee Cc Cees Sr ee eeePEER Kose (1) In 1924, the french physicist, Louis de Broglie suggested that if light has both particle and wave like SS Sn ee en Oc ae ee) Sere Ore ne Caer RUC econ ema reste acd Cree CN eee ona ae (3) According to de-broglie, the wavelength associated with a particle of mass m, moving with velocity v is given by the relation Soe SSeS eee Te (4) This can be derived as follows according to Planck's equation, E = hv = va i ee en nen ern ce Seer rete ae eee) ine Cee a ee ee en ee ee ee eee ey See cer eT aR eta Pere Sa aa Gee nee ere mum Ce eee Ce ee OR eer ed Cee oe eee Re a Re Re pe eae 7m B ad nh ees ee en a os ary Qe INote:G Fora proton, electron and an a-particle moving with the same velocity have de-broglie SCO a nee ae ae oe (ORCC n Ce mee oe en Cr ce a Coe ee ae eee Preece eee mee Ren eacsd ens eee Ren a on eos eee a no significance in everyday life. ESAT? econ Coca POS ee aE Sec ee ec ee Cerny Our Eee (OR Ee a Cee CT Orme OTC) eee i eee eT Ee Carag ee et ee - Pees aed ess ett Pena ee ee eee et Ce ee Sd Tu ee(@) 331% 10 @) 133% 10d (313x107 4 COREE H Sn 2) Oreste OER) rer Pieter rr ee tener tem sans SrxUr ea ESE EsU aT] Ceo ma ORCC Sc Peo Se Ree (2) According to uncertainty principle “It is impossible to specify at any given moment both the position and momentum (velocity) of an electron”. DUE e Sata) ya Ce nna St Rc a Cae eer CSU ed Nee ere Ree oe ome a a Cartas. ra ‘The sign > means that the product of Av and Ap (or of Av and Av ) can be greater than, or equal to but never Soa Pa RS on ee eke) in Oe Coco erat ence MCA eT CZ h Yd Prd Note -0 Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle cannot we apply to a stationary electron because its velocity is Cenc nnC OCR ste ene cg Solved Exam pie- Example: What is the maximum precision with which the momentum of an electron can be known if the uncertainty in ee eee ee eS cy Se ee Po eae rs Dace Tea ae (honed al creer rat a Peat eg ee Example: _ Calculate the uncertainty in velocity of an electron if the uncertainty in its position is of the order of a 14.Ronny According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle core ro a (ooeeal ed Av = eS = 5.8 x10%m sect Sane een et ee 7 Pre ee eo eee ee eee eee ee ere ec) ‘measurement of velocity is 0.1% Calculate uncertainty In its positions. Comment on the result. esas 100 n ca re ory a Sea arias reer RETETT Teer ate ORO TE TEN vy Pies ee = Perse cd ‘The factor being small and almost being negligible for microscope particles. WAVE MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM eee a According to Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle it is not possible to determine precisely the position and Dt nun ens R eet one ae eee ones eee ed ruled out. In quantum mechanical model, we speak of probability or possibility of an electron with a particular Cee tee en eee ee eRe See Ae Rh eee a particular location is given by the square of wave function (| |”) corresponding to that location, There are BT RE eR As eR SR I eC Pee ace ee Re ee ele ae eae ce zero even at large distances from the nucleus, although it may become negligible. Therefore, is not possible to draw a boundary that will enclose the region of 100 % probability. However, for the sake of simplicity we draw arbitrary boundaries which enclose the regions where probability of Dr Ru eu Au Ce le eee Eee re As Sees Sr eee Ca An orbital may be defined as that region of space around the nucleus where the probility of finding ee Oe Sine ee et ete Ts ee ee etic ee ee eee ee But the most common method is to represent an orbital as an electron cloud in terms of small dots, the intensity Ce ne abel er Orbit Dee ey oa On Intemns of electron cloud representation, the probability of finding an electron in a particular region of space is directly proportional to the density of dots in that region. ‘The important differences between an orbit and an orbital are given in table.Differences between an Orbit and an Orbital : rr rr Seam EES Rare ay pa ee Ces followed by revolving electron of the atom where the electron is most petites emeiet ets Pe ee coca ee ee rs Eee enon teste ee Pee eect Prete nam enc eee Peet coe PRO eect ee Ri are spherically symmetrical whereas p-orbitals are dumb-bell shaped. Pee Sot) FOS eee Te ere Cee eta character and hence they can account for emt aera Cee eee ct Cae et cect een emai BNC ero) See eee Le Ct OE Le ae eer eTocs) the particle at that position at that time. ‘The wavefunction is used in the Schrodinger equation. The Schrodinger equation plays the role of Newtons’ laws Se eRe wa Mae ee ee ee eens does not predict analytically and precisely detailed outcome of an experiment, but given a large number of eee ce a a Comrenen ete et tn meee est Sete ee eee eer eee {lfparticle exists, probability of finding it somewhere must be one) ots Sern er nae eget ad Peet eet ee + Permits calculation of most probable value (expectation value) of agiven variable See eC eae ced Een “ rem CR et ee ee rd ae ele Cee eee See eee ee rede) V = Potential energy of particle Se eee tet en hee Cente en oe eee Peete ie Mirena eee ry valued. SR eee Leen een ee obtained. eee eet eee ee oe eae Significance of y (i) aives the complete description of state of system (like electron in an atom) Re ee ee OMe areca ened OREO nee eeCee OA ae The y* gives probability density of finding a particle at a point in space. Foe ee Se eee ee ee eee ee Similarity y? « probability of finding a particle in space. ent eae eee ee ed ace See errs Peer eg UE ee a Re Cour EouC A e ieeSTLCoe reer re Probability = ['¥(x, y, z)]? (dx dy de) Probability density at a point (x,y,z) in space = [y(x,y,2)] Seer ete ey ee ee ee ee eR cee me a eo transformed from cartesian to polar coordinates. 2= reos0) Pe eid ¥ &,¥, 2) = Rlr).0@) 0) De aE Un uu Rul ee ere knee eeu ice equation in polar coordinates is broken into three independent equations. The three independent equations are : COL eee ears (CRC Ley ‘The three equations ae solved separately. The solution to radial equation which contain only ¥ terms gives radial function R. The solution to angular equation which contain only 0 term give angular wave function ®. The solution ‘to zimuthal equation to give azimuthal function «>. These three independent solution are combined to give complete ered tines Pry eee ae ee ee CLO Probability of finding an electron at coordinate (1,0,¢) in infinitesimally small volume element dv = r*sin0 d0 db poe Pree UU) eee CEU Sees ge eee ee Pee et eee oy Fee es SETS ee ease eg ee Radial probability distribution [P(1)] = [R(r)]? 4nr Radial probabilty déstibution gives spherical sense of probability without any specified direction.* DCO Se Gun an ae a Itis often useful to know the likelihood of finding the electron in an orbital at any given distance away from the nucleus. This enables us to say at what distance from the nucleus the electron is most likely to be found, and also how tightly or loosely the electron is bound in a particular atom. This is expressed by the radial distribution rer ee ee ea ae ad 2(1), Radial distribution function is the measure of the probability of finding the electron in a spherical shell between thickness r and (r + dr) from the nucleus, inespective of the direction. For 1s orbital of H-atom : The wave function y.,,is independent of the angles 8 and p, and the desired probability is found by multiplying | y2| Parti ras BT Cee ors a Nea ey niall ithradius(r+dr) | [withradiusr “LN coe cul eee See cere ae et a ee eee ane aaa) Pa eo Oe eeu svalthicoes the Pe eee anc Cee Radial probability distribution = Radial probability density x Volume of radial shell Pam ae a ee ee eC ee oe eT POR ree i UC Le ett ress Ee eae thee Ce iaid total probability is least corresponding to this volume. This is due to the reason that the volume of the shell near the nucleus is very smallresulting in a small value of total probability. tis zero at the nucleus. As the distance from the nucleus increases the volume of the radial shell increases while y* decreases rapidly. Pa eee ee eh eee ee nes et eect eee cee tn Lee en ete en ee eee eee ee et distance from the nucleusis called distance of maximum probability (r,). For hydrogen atom, this radius has a Bes a ce eee eg ee eee eee eco Pre ea een eo ea eee ee set eee ta distance and there is probability of finding the electron at distances both shorter and larger than 53 pm. Ce een ee eee ee Go cen nn ea (i) The maximum probability of finding the electron, for the ground state hydrogen atom (1s) isfound to be at PAGeconee ee ee ee ee ey probability of finding the electron at the distance corresponding to the highest value of peak. However, there is lesser probability of finding the electron at the other peaks. It shows that in a certain slate, the electron spends some portion ofits time very close to the nucleus. ee ee eee ee eee eee fie” RRL a cd ane oe Se a al a} Oe ne ee eed a ae es ae ata a oy Seen ea aElectron-density distribution in 1s, 2s and 3s-orbitals ‘The lower part ofthe fig. shows how the electron density, represented by w* varies asa function of distance from Cee eo ee ee ce eee ee eee aR ee ty nucleus. The spherical surfaces around the nucleus at which is zero are called nodes. * ir wo) i erneomee rere ey eres Oe CSe ny ony TAG} vo rs 5 2s Sea) Pern)wo) ara xu) & — Electron-density distribution in 2p,, 3p, and 4p -orbitals : Te 4p, ca) Sana)er ra Solution eras ear for es or rea caro See ee eee ae Hl Tac ere en cae Ce eee ey re) (B)1,2.6 (1.3.6 (obey cl) ened eee Pane a ee nue) Sata cic U (3 a Oa) ane eee ee Cee ee eee (A) Total numberof nodes forp, 8 3s orbitals are equat Ce ee ee eee ee ee eee ee eee ean et oto care cs (co) a! Pa ° porta has one radial nodal surce at (4- x2 3p. atr=0 w= Oubile for 3s atr=0 Y= maximumso, 3shas greater penetrating power than 3p, orbital See eg ced i ni Gene Exp (Ne a Re ) ene ere ee eee) Cee Cee eC Cry ooo ee ew a ae ee Sey rset ae Oreos (©) Angular wave function should be independent on (0, eek ae tates niece @) Se Sal ee CS ese ee) eed ir ceerrr SSR cacy ‘The angular probability gives an idea of shape and orientation of the orbitals. Reread The s-orbitals are spherically symmetrical about the nucleus, i.e, the probability of finding s electron is same in allditections from the nuclesus. The sizeof the orbital depends on the value of principal quantum number, there is one spherically symmetrical orbital. The 1s orbital is smaller than 2s-orbital and 2s-orbital is smaller than 3s, Cr eee ae eee tar oF Ne ne DO ee ee ee ee ren eee ee (The probebilty of Is electron is found to be maximum near the nucleus and decreases asthe distance from the nucleus increases. In case of 2s electrons, the probability is again maximum near the nucleus and then decreases to 2210 and increases again and then decreases as the distance from the nucleus from the nucleus De UA a as Ue ee eee Ene eco or simply node. Thus, 2s-orbital differs from 1s-orbital in having one node within it. Similarly, 3s has two nodes. in general, any ns orbital has (n -1) nodes. CO oe eee eae ae oD Crees ren ere ton eee The s orbital of higher energy levels are also symmetrically spherical and can be represented as reas y Nodal Bras a eB 26 os ed ‘There are three p-orbitals, commonly referred to as p,, p, and p,. These three p-orbitals, possess equivalent energy and therefore, have same relation with the nucleus. They, however, differin their direction & distribution of the charge. These three p-orbitals are situated at right angle to another and are directed along x,y and z-axes (ret)Nee ee tu eas eee eo ce called nodal point or nucleus). ‘The two lobes of each orbital are separated by a plane of zero electron density called nodal plane. Each p orbital of higher energy level are also dumb bell shape but they have nodal surface. Nodal a Reed Raand (Nodal plane} A _ Nodal point Rema vi vf (Nogal plane} a 4 z Shape of d-orbitals When f= 2, 'm'has five values~2, -1,0, +1, +2. ltimplies that d subshell of any energy shell has five orbitals Allthe five orbitals are not identical in shape. Four ofthe d orbitals d,., d,..d.4.2_,2 contain four lobes while fith orbital d,» consists of only two lobes. The lobes d, orbitale between x and y axis, Similars the case for d,,and d,,. Fourlobes of d,2_,» orbital are lying along x and y axis while the two lobes of d,» orbital are lying along z axis and contain a ring of negative charge surrounding the nucleus in xy plane. m= -2,-1,0, +1, 42 eg Cee oe eee ee eee eSCent () Nodal Point > 1 Ce eee CCR) Er ee eect) 4d, > — 1Nodal surface Lt Neo) Ce SS eos Coen eae) d, > 2&yznodalplane dx & ay nodal plane et Seto) Ce en one band CP ened Ca Coe Otbitals of d subshell are equivalentin energy 42 does nothave any nodal plane. Caen Pee Quantum numbers (1) Bach orbital in an atom is specified by a set of three quantum numbers (n, |, m) and each electron is, designated by a set of four quantum numbers (n, J, m ands). ic} @) Pere eae (O) (i) It was proposed by Bohr’s and denoted by ‘n’. Onn ce cen ee Come Cee neon Ty EU Ore | (iii) It determine the energy of the electron in an orbit where electron is present. SSS ERS corn (ORS ee Gee a Tee energy shell in atoms of known elements possess more than 32 electrons, (v) It gives the information of orbit K, L, M, N- CORRS Ree sateen (vii) It represents the major energy shell or orbit to which the electron belongs. (viii) Angular momentum can also be calculated using principle quantum number m7 Pa Azimuthal quantum number (J) ORME Ou aoe ee one U ne nt ae eo Crener anae (ii) It determines the number of sub shells or sublevels to which the electron belongs. (COSTER eS eS eee ole Ce eee ee ee eee ce cr) (v) The value of (COM = 0 1 2 a P a f ESO ete TT sR (n— 1) always where ‘n’ is the number of principle shell mc) REET Shape of subshell(vii) It represent the orbital angular momentum. Which is equal to iM Pan) 7 (viii) The maximum number of electrons in subshell = 2(2/ +1) Ree eee coro Mee es koma eee occ (ol Lene eC Rae oe nee (x) The energy of any electron is depend on the value of n & because total energy = (n +). The electron enters in that sub orbit whose (n + I) value or the value of energy is less. (4) Magnetic quantum number (m) (i) It was proposed by Zeeman and denoted by ‘m’, (ii) It gives the number of permitted orientation of subshells. OC ce ene eR ea (iv) It tells about the splitting of spectral lines in the magnetic field i.e. this quantum number proved the eee (OMe cee (vi) For a given value of” the total value of ‘nr’ is equal to(2/ +1). CO ee ee eee ee ee Se ee (viii) The number of degenerate orbitals of s subshell =0. CRU COU ee} (i) It was proposed by Goldshmide & Ulen Back and denoted by the symbol of 's. (i) The value of * Been Denes SS es eRe ee Ce Roa ec set ene COM nA eee Cae Rae et aC I) = cra) 4 (v) Maximum spin of an atom = 1/2 x number of unpaired electron, cer} (vi) This quantum number is not the result of solution of schrodinger equation as solved for H-atom.Distribution of electrons among the quantum levels Cee oD a ud i orbitals fon eon TO shel) ae 5 A B Ero) Ceres I7) 2s 5 a | 41/2-1/2 8 fe este ap a Pe estes try Ce eT} en eet es ae Fy cae mene Cee este siz) » 6 See tees 18 PSTEESIEY ca STE Sete) ci Bes Pet) a Oma Neate ete) a | 41/2-1/2 re 2 Om ear « 5 can Beste Ca ester) oy 6 Pun estpety scam Bes come STE TES ee eater) oo 3 10 Se Beate) 2 | 41/2-1/2 cor) ia Pern T Ey a esr | Cn Beare tes | 12-1/2| a +0 | 41/2-1/2] 4 a | 4172-172] Pee eatery an eee |‘The distribution of electrons in different orbitals of atom is known as electronic configuration of the atoms. Filling up of orbitals in the ground state of atom is governed by the following rules: (CU n acd (0 Aufbau is a German word, meaning ‘building up’. (i) According to this principle, “In the ground state, the atomic orbitals are filled in order of increasing, energies Le. in the ground state the electrons first occupy the lowest energy orbitals available”. CO ee eee CR cn Rae CU ee CRC CS ROC) ona Oona (a) Lower the value of n + /, lower is the energy of the orbital and such an orbital will be filled up first. (b) When two orbitals have same value of (n#/) the orbital having lower value of “n” has lower energy and such an orbital will be filled up first ‘Thus, order of filling up of orbitals is as follows: eee Eee ete ee ee ee eer] (2) Pauli’s exclusion principle OR cou cere nen eo Re Sane eUR ec eee CeCe See ey (ORDERED aN eg ee oan ec eee Rae nica (iii)Since this principle excludes certain possible combinations of quantum numbers for any two Dee RE ee ce es De econ ECE (a) The maximum capacity of a main energy shell is equal to 2n’ electron. Operetta at ae SRE Pers RS csr OCU oe ergs ere CRU a Eee (d) Number of orbitals ina main energy shell is equal ton”. (c) One orbital cannot have more than two electrons. (iv) According to this principle an orbital can accomodate at the most two electrons with spins opposite to each other. It means that an orbital can have 0, 1, or 2 electron. (v) If an orbital has two electrons they must be of opposite spin. an a rT roy ELC Muni ag(i) This rule provides the basis for filling up of degenerate orbitals of the same sub-shell. (ii) According to this rule “Electron filling will not take place in orbitals of same energy until all the available orbitals of a given subshell contain one electron each with parallel spin’. (ili) This implies that electron pairing begins with fourth, sixth and eighth electron in p, d and forbitals of ee SS seth (iv) The reason behind this rule is related to repulsion between identical charged electron present in the Unc (v) They can minimise the repulsive force between them serves by occupying different orbitals. (vi)Moreover, according to this principle, the electron entering the different orbitals of subshell have PR ee Se Cee em ee eee Cag eres (vii) The term maximum multiplicity means that the total spin of unpaired e~is maximum in case of Cea See oe EE ey De Od Ro Rr ac Cece One electron system : In this system 1s level and all orbital of same principal quantum number have same energy, which is independent of (/). In this system / only determines the shape of the orbital. Dns eee Ee a eS ee ee ee also upon the another electron present in them. a ad D Energy level diagram of one electron rea eg cen eran nt) Dee a Cec ce ena(i) As the distance of the shell increases from the nucleus, the energy level increases. For example energy etree (ii) The different sub shells have different energy levels which possess definite energy. For a definite shell Re LC wom een amr ga Crag ee | oy ra aT ot) COSCO Ree err ee Re eee Cd CO (a) The sub-shell with lower values of (n +1) possess lower energy. nr a 0 ear (b) Ifthe value of (n + 1) for two orbitals is same, one with lower values of 'n’ possess lower energy level. SCC ROL Roe ced Half-filled and completely filled sub-shell have extra stability due to the following reasons OS aoa EAL CONTR NaN ome eees IS (b) Thus, ifthe shift of an electron from one orbital to another orbital differing slightly in energy results Peon eere emcee cee oecc oe ed Ol egs ce eae UCC ee Ca ee (Cn arene (a) The electron in various subshells can exchange their positions, since electron in the same subshell eee Ree em (b) The energy is released during the exchange process with in the same subshell. () In case of half filled and completely filled orbitals, the exchange energy is maximum and is greater than the loss of orbital energy due to the transfer of electron from a higher to a lower sublevel e.g. CUE En eee age es (d) The greater the number of possible exchanges between the electrons of parallel spins present in the degenerate orbitals, the higher would be the amount of energy released and more will be the stability. (OP e COR aUCntSg cence ee Rae ae te ec teers Reena — Cee A A CRE REEE Fenrena ney Eerie cones Pee eg eo ee eed CO ec eeeerne Peerrert rs en een ge by Sede ‘To number of possible exchanges = 4 +3 +2 +1= 10(1) On the basis of the elecronic configuration priciples the electronic configuration of various elements are given in the following table : Electronic Configuration (E.C.) of Elements Z=1 to 36 Ce aa z | 2 | 35 | 3p | ad | 4s w | a | a ri a a B A ra 5 A ri ke 6 Pee p 5 2 | 2 fi c 6 Pee 2 N 7 Pee 3 O Fy ne F 9 2 5 i 10 2 | 2 | o6 ro rr ae 5 ri Mo 2 A 4 13 z A ci “4 10 5 2 P 15, co z 3 5 irs D A fa a z 5 te 18 aie 5 5 Fa rey ra z & ri @ 20 z se a ni A Pa 2 A v Ps 3 a Py 5 A a 25 5 2 a ra Cees i Po ry aia ra 28 cone Caer! ra By Tet Pa Fa ra er) ca Pr ra er ri a 2 Pre eae As Fe wo | 2 | 3 es Py a ee) ar Pa rr ee kr 36 ple: cae Cee eeRee Rae eee Cen eke eee come ae es acres configuration of the atom of any element is simply represented by the notation. ona ¢ a n ee eee ce (3) Gi Elements with atomic number 24(Cr), 42(Mo) and 74(WW) have ns" (n— I)d* configuration and not Sa O rece ol gage eee coe COCO ee Oe COE ee ee OM UO stc Riel cemt Cece cons iMvwiw Vow em 38 oma a cy co cna eae meee ee write electronic configuration of the ion, first write electronic configuration of its atom and take electron from outermost orbit. If we write electronic configuration of Fe*'(Z = 26, 24 ¢ ), it will not be similar to Cr (with prrae er ces PERE oe RUA OR en en ee eS Leena Pen CEE Caan) ee ered eee eR eee ea ne es recess Me ae ee oc CCC oe (6) Jon with unpaired electron in d or forbital will be coloured. Thus, Cu* with electronic configuration [4r]3a" is colourless and Cu** with electronic configuration [4r]3d” (one unpaired electron in 3d) is coloured (blue). (7) Position of the element in periodic table on the basis of electronic configuration can be determined as, (i) If last electron enters into s-subshell, p-subshell, penultimate d-subshell and anti penultimate f ST Ree ee ae eae en (i) Principle quantum number (n) of outermost shell gives the number of period of the element, (ii)IF the last shell contains 1 or 2 electrons (ie. for s-block elements having the configurationns'~*), the ‘group number is 1 in the first case and 2 in the second case. (iv)IF the last shell contains 3 or more than 3 electrons (i. for p-block elements having the configuration oe ee Ue ee ee eo) (v) Ifthe electrons are present in the (n-1)d orbital in addition to those in the ns orbital (i.e. for d-block OOS na nite ONES Me ee RUE enue cence entities of electrons present in the (n -1)d orbital and ns orbital.I ey (Solids which are strongly attracted by magnetic field and retain their magnetic property even ifthe field is. ee Sane ea Cee enon reed ened * Total spin and spin magnetic moment CR oee enn res eat nn tae tee res Ce eee eee eee se ey ee ee MAGNETIC PROPERTIES ° ery (The substances which are weakly attracted by magnetic field are paramagnetic and this phenomenon is Pee cs Oe te see ne eT ee] (iii) They contain unpaired electrons. COM enna} (The substances which are weakly repelled by magnetic field are diamagnetic and this phenomenon is. eee Ce ee Cee et ee eee Ee One oo ee een a ee] Ren ee (One ce ee eee eget a) eee as co (A), (B) ard (C) are the conect answer since M can be positive’negative both andiin Ag 23' electrons have spin one direction and remaining '24” in another TT Ree LeU ee Rais) eel Pea) Rod Cea ae ee de Ne a Mlustration AS UE ue eae URS acy bh Roary Sena ad pea 2)22n V4 2k er a er ae ne eee ui ui cli i nero eras OR era os Co) ne Coe er TesPrerearra) coe Ro Perr ay emi eer) Road lee Ree eect nt aa Cee oc ete ns chlorine atom. nr) ( ) ® 2 1 2 (en (ne nr) ) reg eno) Deen a aa Cer we ee ee can be placed in order of increasing eneray from lowest to highest as ne een nes eG) on ea Ue Oa ewe (a) PoC ad (i) The orbital with lowest value of (n + ¢) have lowest energy. ee ee ee eed Cid for eae ea ed (in CaM ee ee ea a ‘A compound of vanadium has magnetic moment of 1.73 BM, Work out the electronic configuration eee Ec r) Vanadium belongs to 3d series with Z = 23. The magnetic moment of 3d series metal is given Dea aty = Jnin+2) BM (BM = Bohr’s magneton} L738 = V3 cies ene ae ees ea OR eee Lee ee ee Re ee For one unpaired electron 4 electron must be removed in which first 2 electron are ost from 4 Ponotenen) Electronic configuration of V~* Poa aa ae a