PRECALCULUS M456

Unit 6 Complete Study Guide

Polar Coordinates, Equations & Graphs

Topics Covered:
Plotting Polar Points | Multiple Representations | Polar ↔ Rectangular Conversions
Equation Conversions | Graphing Circles, Limacons & Rose Curves
SECTION 1: The Polar Coordinate System — Fundamentals

1.1 What is the Polar Coordinate System?

The polar coordinate system is an alternative to the rectangular (Cartesian) system. Instead of
describing a point's location by how far it is horizontally and vertically from the origin, polar coordinates
describe:
• r — the DISTANCE from the origin (called the pole) to the point
• θ (theta) — the ANGLE measured from the positive x-axis (called the polar axis), going
counterclockwise

A polar coordinate is written as (r, θ).

TIP: Think of it like a clock: θ tells you which direction to face, and r tells you how far to walk in that
direction.

1.2 How to Plot a Polar Point (r, θ)

Follow these exact steps every time:
• Step 1: Start at the origin (center of the polar grid).
• Step 2: Rotate to angle θ. Positive θ = counterclockwise. Negative θ = clockwise.
• Step 3: Move r units along that ray. If r > 0, go in the direction of θ. If r < 0, go in the OPPOSITE
direction (flip 180°).

EXAMPLE: Plot (4, −π/3)

Step 1: Start at origin.
Step 2: θ = −π/3. Negative, so go CLOCKWISE π/3 radians (60°) → this puts you at the 4
o'clock direction.
Step 3: r = 4 (positive), so move 4 units in that direction.
Result: Point A is in the lower-right region of the graph.

EXAMPLE: Plot (−2, 3π/4)

Step 1: Start at origin.
Step 2: θ = 3π/4. Counterclockwise 135° → upper-left direction.
Step 3: r = −2 (NEGATIVE), so flip 180° and go 2 units in the OPPOSITE direction → lower-
right.
Result: The point ends up in the LOWER-RIGHT even though θ pointed upper-left.

COMMON MISTAKE: Negative r does NOT mean the point is at a negative location — it means
you go BACKWARDS along the ray.
Key Angle (radians) Degrees & Quadrant Position
0 0° — Positive x-axis (right)
π/6 30° — First quadrant
π/4 45° — First quadrant
π/3 60° — First quadrant
π/2 90° — Positive y-axis (up)
2π/3 120° — Second quadrant
3π/4 135° — Second quadrant
5π/6 150° — Second quadrant
π 180° — Negative x-axis (left)
7π/6 210° — Third quadrant
5π/4 225° — Third quadrant
4π/3 240° — Third quadrant
3π/2 270° — Negative y-axis (down)
5π/3 300° — Fourth quadrant
7π/4 315° — Fourth quadrant
11π/6 330° — Fourth quadrant
SECTION 2: Multiple Representations of the Same Point

2.1 Why Points Have Infinitely Many Representations

Unlike rectangular coordinates where every point has EXACTLY ONE representation (x, y), polar
coordinates allow infinitely many representations of the same point. This is because:
• Adding or subtracting 2π to θ brings you back to the same angle (full rotation)
• Using negative r flips the direction, so you need to also shift θ by π to compensate

2.2 The Three Rules for Equivalent Polar Coordinates

Given a point (r, θ), here are all equivalent forms:

Rule 1 (same r, add 2π): (r, θ) = (r, θ + 2π)

Rule 2 (same r, subtract 2π): (r, θ) = (r, θ − 2π)
Rule 3 (negate r, shift θ by π): (r, θ) = (−r, θ + π) = (−r, θ − π)

TIP: You can combine these rules too: (r, θ) = (−r, θ+π) and then add 2π to that θ if needed.

EXAMPLE: Find 3 other representations of (8, 3π/4)

Given: (8, 3π/4)

Rep 1 — Add 2π to θ: (8, 3π/4 + 2π) = (8, 3π/4 + 8π/4) = (8, 11π/4)
This has positive r and positive θ. ✓

Rep 2 — Subtract 2π from θ: (8, 3π/4 − 2π) = (8, 3π/4 − 8π/4) = (8, −5π/4)
This has positive r and negative θ. ✓

Rep 3 — Negate r, add π to θ: (−8, 3π/4 + π) = (−8, 3π/4 + 4π/4) = (−8, 7π/4)
This has negative r and positive θ. ✓

EXAMPLE: Find 3 other representations of (−5, −π/2)

Given: (−5, −π/2)

Rep 1 — Add 2π to θ: (−5, −π/2 + 2π) = (−5, 3π/2)

Negative r, positive θ. ✓

Rep 2 — Negate r, add π: (5, −π/2 + π) = (5, π/2)

Positive r, positive θ. ✓
Rep 3 — Negate r, subtract π: (5, −π/2 − π) = (5, −3π/2)
Positive r, negative θ. ✓

COMMON MISTAKE: When the problem says 'include at least one negative r and one negative θ',
make sure each representation you write clearly satisfies that. Check your signs!
SECTION 3: Polar → Rectangular Coordinate Conversion

3.1 The Conversion Formulas

These formulas come from basic trigonometry in a right triangle formed by the point, origin, and x-axis:

x = r · cos(θ)
y = r · sin(θ)

TIP: Memory trick: x comes first, cosine comes first alphabetically (after sine... wait — use 'x-cos'
and 'y-sin'). Or remember: in (r,θ), cosine gives horizontal (x) and sine gives vertical (y).

3.2 Step-by-Step Method

• Step 1: Identify r and θ from the polar coordinate.
• Step 2: Compute x = r·cos(θ) using exact trig values.
• Step 3: Compute y = r·sin(θ) using exact trig values.
• Step 4: Write your answer as (x, y).

Key Exact Trig Values You MUST Know

Angle θ cos(θ) sin(θ) tan(θ)
0 1 0 0
π/6 (30°) √3/2 1/2 √3/3
π/4 (45°) √2/2 √2/2 1
π/3 (60°) 1/2 √3/2 √3
π/2 (90°) 0 1 undefined
2π/3 (120°) −1/2 √3/2 −√3
3π/4 (135°) −√2/2 √2/2 −1
5π/4 (225°) −√2/2 −√2/2 1
4π/3 (240°) −1/2 −√3/2 √3
5π/3 (300°) 1/2 −√3/2 −√3
7π/4 (315°) √2/2 −√2/2 −1
3π/2 (270°) 0 −1 undefined
π (180°) −1 0 0
EXAMPLE: Convert (12, 5π/4) to rectangular
r = 12, θ = 5π/4

x = r·cos(θ) = 12·cos(5π/4) = 12·(−√2/2) = −6√2

y = r·sin(θ) = 12·sin(5π/4) = 12·(−√2/2) = −6√2

Answer: (−6√2, −6√2)

Check: 5π/4 = 225°, which is in Q3 — both x and y should be negative. ✓

EXAMPLE: Convert (−4, −π/2) to rectangular

r = −4, θ = −π/2

x = r·cos(θ) = −4·cos(−π/2) = −4·(0) = 0

y = r·sin(θ) = −4·sin(−π/2) = −4·(−1) = 4

Answer: (0, 4)

Sanity check: θ = −π/2 points downward, but r is negative, so we flip to pointing UP.
The point should be on the positive y-axis. (0, 4) confirms this. ✓

TIP: ALWAYS do a quadrant check at the end: figure out where the polar point actually is, then
confirm your (x, y) lands in that same region.
SECTION 4: Rectangular → Polar Coordinate Conversion

4.1 The Conversion Formulas

r² = x² + y² → r = √(x² + y²) or r = −√(x² + y²)
tan(θ) = y/x → θ = arctan(y/x) [with quadrant adjustment!]

COMMON MISTAKE: arctan only gives angles in Q1 or Q4 (between −π/2 and π/2). You MUST
adjust for the correct quadrant based on where (x, y) lies.

4.2 Step-by-Step Method

• Step 1: Compute r = √(x² + y²). If the problem says r < 0, use r = −√(x² + y²).
• Step 2: Determine which quadrant (x, y) is in.
• Step 3: Compute the reference angle: α = arctan(|y/x|).
• Step 4: Adjust θ based on the quadrant AND the sign requirement for θ.
• Step 5: If r is negative, add or subtract π to θ (because negative r flips direction).

Quadrant Angle Adjustments for θ

Point in Quadrant Positive θ formula Negative θ formula
Q1 (x>0, y>0) θ = α (reference angle) θ = α − 2π
Q2 (x<0, y>0) θ=π−α θ = −π − α OR θ = α − π
Q3 (x<0, y<0) θ=π+α θ = −π + α OR θ = α − π
Q4 (x>0, y<0) θ = 2π − α OR θ = −α θ = −α (already negative)

EXAMPLE: (−1, −√3) ; r > 0, θ < 0

Step 1: r = √((-1)² + (-√3)²) = √(1 + 3) = √4 = 2
r > 0, so r = 2. ✓

Step 2: Point is in Q3 (both negative).

Step 3: Reference angle: α = arctan(|−√3/−1|) = arctan(√3) = π/3 (60°)

Step 4: Need θ < 0 and point in Q3.

θ = −π + α = −π + π/3 = −2π/3 ← this is negative ✓
(or equivalently: θ = −(π − π/3) = −2π/3)

Answer: (2, −2π/3)

EXAMPLE: (−4, 5) ; r < 0, θ > 0
Step 1: The problem says r < 0, so r = −√(16 + 25) = −√41 ≈ −6.40

Step 2: Point (−4, 5) is in Q2.

Step 3: Reference angle: α = arctan(|5/−4|) = arctan(5/4) ≈ 0.8961 rad ≈ 51.34°

Step 4: For Q2 with positive r, the standard θ would be π − α ≈ π − 0.8961 ≈ 2.2455

But r is NEGATIVE, so the ray flips 180°. We need to add π to
that angle:
θ = (π − α) + π = 2π − α, but we want θ > 0...
Actually: if r < 0, the direction flips, so θ = (π − α) − π =
−α is wrong...
Correct approach: negative r with the point in Q2 means the ray
aims at Q4.
θ for Q4 positive = 2π − α ≈ 2π − 0.8961 ≈ 5.39
Check: (−6.40, 5.39): r is negative, ray aims in Q4, flip → Q2.
✓

Answer: (−√41, 2π − arctan(5/4)) ≈ (−6.40, 5.39)

TIP: For r < 0 problems: first find what θ would be if r were positive (using normal quadrant rules),
then ADD π (or subtract π) to get the angle for the negative-r version that still points at the same
spot.
SECTION 5: Converting Equations Between Systems

5.1 Master Formula Sheet — Memorize These!

FROM RECTANGULAR TO POLAR — substitute these:

x = r·cos(θ)
y = r·sin(θ)
x² + y² = r²

FROM POLAR TO RECTANGULAR — use these:

r·cos(θ) = x → r² = x² + y²
r·sin(θ) = y → r = √(x² + y²)
tan(θ) = y/x

5.2 Rectangular → Polar (Converting Equations)

Strategy: Replace every x with r·cos(θ), every y with r·sin(θ), and every x²+y² with r². Then simplify.

EXAMPLE: Convert 4x + 5y = 1
Replace x and y:
4(r·cosθ) + 5(r·sinθ) = 1
r(4cosθ + 5sinθ) = 1
r = 1 / (4cosθ + 5sinθ) ← standard polar form of a line

EXAMPLE: Convert y = (√3/3)x

Replace y and x:
r·sinθ = (√3/3)·r·cosθ
sinθ / cosθ = √3/3
tanθ = √3/3 = 1/√3
θ = π/6 (or θ = π/6 + π = 7π/6 for all solutions)
Answer: θ = π/6

TIP: When you get y = (constant)·x, the polar form is just θ = arctan(constant). This is a LINE
through the origin.

EXAMPLE: Convert y = −3
Replace y with r·sinθ:
 r·sinθ = −3
r = −3/sinθ
r = −3·cscθ (since 1/sinθ = cscθ)

EXAMPLE: Convert x² + y² = y
Replace x²+y² with r², and y with r·sinθ:
r² = r·sinθ
Divide both sides by r (assuming r ≠ 0):
r = sinθ
Answer: r = sinθ

TIP: The pattern x²+y² = y converts VERY cleanly to r = sinθ. Similarly, x²+y² = x becomes r = cosθ.

5.3 Polar → Rectangular (Converting Equations)

Strategy: Look for patterns. Multiply both sides by r if needed to create r², r·sinθ, or r·cosθ. Then
substitute.

Polar Pattern to Watch For Rectangular Form

r = constant (e.g., r = 6) Circle: x² + y² = constant²
r·sinθ = constant Horizontal line: y = constant
r·cosθ = constant Vertical line: x = constant
r = a·sinθ Circle: x² + (y−a/2)² = (a/2)²
r = a·cosθ Circle: (x−a/2)² + y² = (a/2)²
r = a·cscθ Horizontal line: y = a
r = a·secθ Vertical line: x = a
θ = constant Line through origin: y = x·tan(constant)

EXAMPLE: Convert r = 6 to rectangular

r=6
Square both sides: r² = 36
Substitute: x² + y² = 36
This is a circle centered at origin with radius 6.

EXAMPLE: Convert r = 4·cscθ

r = 4·cscθ = 4/sinθ
Multiply both sides by sinθ:
r·sinθ = 4
Substitute r·sinθ = y:
y = 4 ← horizontal line

EXAMPLE: Convert θ = 2π/3

θ = 2π/3 is just an angle — it's a ray (line) through the origin.
Use tanθ = y/x:
tan(2π/3) = y/x
−√3 = y/x
y = −√3·x
This is a line through the origin with slope −√3.

EXAMPLE: Convert r = 3sinθ

Multiply both sides by r:
r² = 3r·sinθ
x² + y² = 3y
x² + y² − 3y = 0
Complete the square for y:
x² + (y − 3/2)² = 9/4
Circle centered at (0, 3/2) with radius 3/2.
SECTION 6: Graphing Polar Equations

6.1 Overview of Polar Curve Types

Equation Form Curve Type Key Features
r=a Circle Centered at origin, radius |a|
r = a·sinθ or r = a·cosθ Circle Passes through origin, diameter |a|
r = a ± b·sinθ or r = a ± Limacon Shape depends on |a/b| ratio
b·cosθ
r = a·sin(nθ) or r = Rose Curve n petals if n is odd, 2n petals if n is even
a·cos(nθ)
r² = a²·cos(2θ) or r² = Lemniscate Figure-eight shape
a²·sin(2θ)
r = aθ Spiral Archimedean spiral

6.2 Graphing r = a·sinθ (Circle)

r = 4sinθ produces a circle. Here's the complete analysis:

• Center: (0, a/2) in rectangular = (a/2, π/2) in polar

• Radius: |a/2|
• For r = 4sinθ: center = (0, 2), radius = 2
• The circle passes through the origin and is entirely above the x-axis

Key Points for r = 4sinθ

θ = 0: r = 4sin(0) = 0 → Point: (0, 0)
θ = π/6: r = 4sin(π/6) = 4(1/2) = 2 → Point: (2, π/6)
θ = π/4: r = 4sin(π/4) = 4(√2/2) = 2√2 → Point: (2√2, π/4)
θ = π/3: r = 4sin(π/3) = 4(√3/2) = 2√3 → Point: (2√3, π/3)
θ = π/2: r = 4sin(π/2) = 4(1) = 4 → MAXIMUM at top
θ = 2π/3: r = 4sin(2π/3) = 2√3
θ = π: r = 4sin(π) = 0 → Back to origin
θ = 3π/2: r = 4sin(3π/2) = −4 → r is negative, plots at (0,4) going up

Note: For π < θ < 2π, r is negative but traces the same circle again.

TIP: For r = a·sinθ: the circle is ABOVE x-axis if a > 0, BELOW if a < 0. For r = a·cosθ: circle is to
the RIGHT if a > 0, LEFT if a < 0.
6.3 Graphing Limacons: r = a ± b·sinθ or r = a ± b·cosθ

Limacons come in 4 varieties based on the ratio |a/b|:

Condition Limacon Type Description

|a/b| < 1 (b > a) Inner loop Has a small loop inside a
larger loop
|a/b| = 1 (a = b) Cardioid Heart-shaped curve, passes
through origin
1 < |a/b| < 2 Dimpled limacon Indented but no inner loop
|a/b| ≥ 2 Convex limacon Rounded, no dimple or loop

EXAMPLE: Analyze r = −2 + 3sinθ

Here a = −2, b = 3 (using r = a + b·sinθ form)
Actually: a = 2 (magnitude), b = 3 (magnitude), |a/b| = 2/3 < 1
→ This is a LIMACON WITH INNER LOOP

Key values:
θ = 0: r = −2 + 3(0) = −2
θ = π/6: r = −2 + 3(1/2) = −0.5
θ = π/2: r = −2 + 3(1) = 1 ← local minimum of outer loop
θ = π/6 when r=0: sinθ = 2/3, θ = arcsin(2/3) ≈ 0.7297 (passes through origin)
θ = π/2: r = −2 + 3(1) = 1 ← MAXIMUM = a + b = −2+3 = 1... wait
θ = π/2: MAX r = b − a = 3 − 2 = 1 (upward direction)
θ = 3π/2: r = −2 + 3(−1) = −5 ← |r| = 5, maximum extent downward

The outer loop extends 5 units downward, the inner loop is smaller.
Symmetry: symmetric about the y-axis (vertical axis) because of sinθ.

Quick Rules: Symmetry of Polar Curves

Contains... Symmetric About...
sinθ y-axis (vertical axis, θ = π/2)
cosθ x-axis (polar axis, θ = 0)
sin(nθ) with n even Both axes and origin
cos(nθ) x-axis (polar axis)
r² = f(θ) Often has origin symmetry
6.4 Graphing Rose Curves: r = a·sin(nθ) or r = a·cos(nθ)

Rose curves have petals. The critical rule:

n is ODD → n petals
n is EVEN → 2n petals

EXAMPLE: Analyze r = −3cos(2θ)

a = −3, n = 2 (EVEN) → 2(2) = 4 petals → 4-petal rose
Maximum |r| = |a| = 3, so petals extend 3 units from origin.

r = 0 when cos(2θ) = 0 → 2θ = π/2, 3π/2, 5π/2, 7π/2

→ θ = π/4, 3π/4, 5π/4, 7π/4 ← petal tips'
BOUNDARIES

Maximum r when |cos(2θ)| = 1:

θ = 0: r = −3cos(0) = −3 → tip at (3, π) direction → left petal
θ = π/2: r = −3cos(π) = 3 → tip at (3, π/2) → upward petal
θ = π: r = −3cos(2π) = −3 → tip goes right
θ = 3π/2: r = −3cos(3π) = 3 → tip downward

Petal tips are at angles: 0 (leftward), π/2 (upward), π (rightward), 3π/2 (downward)
The negative sign rotates the petals vs r = 3cos(2θ) — they land on the AXES.

Petal Tip Locations

Equation Petal Tip Location Rule
r = a·cos(nθ), n even Petals at θ = kπ/n for k = 0,1,...,2n-1
r = a·sin(nθ), n even Petals at θ = π/(2n) + kπ/n
r = a·cos(nθ), n odd n petals, starting on x-axis
r = a·sin(nθ), n odd n petals, starting at y-axis direction

6.5 General Graphing Strategy (Works for Any Polar Curve)

• Step 1: Identify the type of curve (circle, limacon, rose, etc.)
• Step 2: Find the maximum and minimum values of r
• Step 3: Find where r = 0 (these are the angles where the curve passes through the origin)
• Step 4: Determine symmetry
• Step 5: Make a table of θ vs r for key angles
• Step 6: Plot points and connect with a smooth curve

TIP: Always test θ = 0, π/6, π/4, π/3, π/2, 2π/3, 3π/4, π and then the corresponding values in the
bottom half. For rose curves, only test one period of nθ.
SECTION 7: Full Worked-Out Solutions to Review Problems

Problem 1 — Plotting Points (from your review)

a) (4, −π/3)
θ = −π/3 = −60° → rotate 60° CLOCKWISE from positive x-axis → 4 o'clock position
r = 4 > 0 → go 4 units in that direction
→ Point A is in the FOURTH quadrant, 4 units from origin at 60° below x-axis

b) (−2, 3π/4)
θ = 3π/4 = 135° → rotate 135° counterclockwise → upper-left direction
r = −2 < 0 → FLIP 180° → go 2 units in the LOWER-RIGHT direction
→ Point B is in the FOURTH quadrant, 2 units from origin

c) (3, −5π/6)
θ = −5π/6 = −150° → rotate 150° CLOCKWISE → lower-left direction
r = 3 > 0 → go 3 units in lower-left direction
→ Point C is in the THIRD quadrant, 3 units from origin

d) (−1, −5π/4)
θ = −5π/4 = −225° → rotating 225° clockwise = 135° counterclockwise → upper-left
r = −1 < 0 → FLIP → go 1 unit in lower-right direction
→ Point D is in the FOURTH quadrant, 1 unit from origin

Problem 3 — Polar to Rectangular (Exact Values)

a) (12, 5π/4) → rectangular

x = 12·cos(5π/4) = 12·(−√2/2) = −6√2 ≈ −8.49
y = 12·sin(5π/4) = 12·(−√2/2) = −6√2 ≈ −8.49
Answer: (−6√2, −6√2)

Verify: 5π/4 = 225° is in Q3 → both x,y negative ✓

r = √((−6√2)² + (−6√2)²) = √(72+72) = √144 = 12 ✓
 b) (−4, −π/2) → rectangular
x = −4·cos(−π/2) = −4·(0) = 0
y = −4·sin(−π/2) = −4·(−1) = 4
Answer: (0, 4)

Verify: θ = −π/2 points downward. Negative r flips to upward.

Upward from origin = positive y-axis = (0, 4) ✓

Problem 5 — Rectangular to Polar Equations

a) 4x + 5y = 1 → polar
Sub x = rcosθ, y = rsinθ:
4(rcosθ) + 5(rsinθ) = 1
r(4cosθ + 5sinθ) = 1
r = 1/(4cosθ + 5sinθ)

b) y = (√3/3)x → polar
Sub y = rsinθ, x = rcosθ:
rsinθ = (√3/3)(rcosθ)
sinθ/cosθ = √3/3
tanθ = √3/3 = 1/√3
θ = arctan(1/√3) = π/6
Answer: θ = π/6 (line through origin at 30°)

c) y = −3 → polar
Sub y = rsinθ:
rsinθ = −3
r = −3/sinθ = −3·cscθ
Answer: r = −3cscθ

d) x² + y² = y → polar
Sub x²+y² = r², y = rsinθ:
r² = rsinθ
r = sinθ (divide both sides by r)
Answer: r = sinθ
Problem 6 — Polar to Rectangular Equations

a) r = 6 → rectangular
Square both sides: r² = 36
Sub r² = x²+y²:
x² + y² = 36 ← circle, center (0,0), radius 6

b) r = 4cscθ → rectangular
r = 4/sinθ
Multiply by sinθ: r·sinθ = 4
Sub r·sinθ = y:
y = 4 ← horizontal line

c) θ = 2π/3 → rectangular
This is a ray at angle 2π/3.
tanθ = tan(2π/3) = −√3
tan(θ) = y/x → y/x = −√3
y = −√3·x ← line through origin with slope −√3

d) r = 3sinθ → rectangular
Multiply both sides by r:
r² = 3r·sinθ
x² + y² = 3y
x² + y² − 3y = 0
Complete the square: x² + (y² − 3y + 9/4) = 9/4
x² + (y − 3/2)² = (3/2)²
Circle: center (0, 3/2), radius 3/2
SECTION 8: Master Tips, Tricks & Common Mistakes

8.1 The Most Common Mistakes (and How to Avoid Them)

COMMON MISTAKE: Forgetting that negative r FLIPS the direction. Always ask yourself: is r
positive or negative? If negative, flip 180°.

COMMON MISTAKE: Using arctan directly for θ without quadrant adjustment. arctan gives values
in Q1 or Q4 only (-π/2 to π/2). Always check which quadrant the point is in first.

COMMON MISTAKE: When converting equations, forgetting to use r·sinθ = y and r·cosθ = x —
NOT just sinθ = y or cosθ = x.

COMMON MISTAKE: For rose curves: confusing n petals (odd n) with 2n petals (even n). r =
3sin(2θ) has 4 petals, NOT 2.

COMMON MISTAKE: For multiple representations: confusing when to add π vs add 2π. Add 2π to
get same r same quadrant. Add π (and negate r) to get the flipped version.

COMMON MISTAKE: For limacons, mixing up which direction the limacon extends: r = a + bsinθ is
symmetric about the y-axis; r = a + bcosθ is symmetric about the x-axis.

8.2 Speed Tips for Exam Day

• Use the unit circle! Every exact trig value you need comes from the unit circle. Know it cold:
sin and cos for 0, π/6, π/4, π/3, π/2 and their reflections.
• Symmetry shortcuts: If the curve is symmetric, you only need to graph half of it and reflect.
• Verify by converting back: After converting a coordinate, plug it back through the reverse
conversion to check.
• For polar → rectangular equations: If you see just r = constant, it's always a circle. If you see
just θ = constant, it's always a line through the origin.
• Table-building for graphs: For r = f(θ), make a T-table with θ values of 0, π/6, π/4, π/3, π/2,
2π/3, 3π/4, 5π/6, π. That's usually enough to see the full shape.
• The trick for r = a·cscθ and r = a·secθ: cscθ = 1/sinθ so r·sinθ = a → y = a (horizontal line).
secθ = 1/cosθ so r·cosθ = a → x = a (vertical line).

8.3 Quick Reference: Recognize the Graph Shape Instantly

If you see... It's a...
r = constant Circle centered at origin
r = a·sinθ or r = a·cosθ Circle through origin
r = a ± a·sinθ (a=b) Cardioid (heart shape)
r = a ± b·sinθ, b > a Limacon with inner loop
r = a ± b·sinθ, b < a Dimpled or convex limacon
r = a·sin(2θ) 4-petal rose (even n)
r = a·sin(3θ) 3-petal rose (odd n)
r = a·sin(4θ) 8-petal rose (even n)
r = a·sin(5θ) 5-petal rose (odd n)
r² = a²·cos(2θ) Lemniscate (figure-8)

8.4 Key Identities & Relationships Summary

Polar to Rectangular: x = r·cosθ, y = r·sinθ

Rectangular to Polar: r = √(x²+y²), θ = arctan(y/x) [+quadrant
adj.]
Pythagorean: r² = x² + y²
Multiple Reps: (r, θ) = (r, θ±2π) = (−r, θ±π)
Limacon type: |a/b| < 1 → inner loop, = 1 → cardioid, > 1 →
no loop
Rose petals: n odd → n petals; n even → 2n petals
SECTION 9: Pre-Test Checklist

Go through each item. If you're not confident, re-read the section and re-work an example.

• I can plot any polar point (r, θ) — including when r < 0 and/or θ < 0
• I can give 3 equivalent polar representations for any point, including one with negative r and one
with negative θ
• I can convert polar → rectangular using x=rcosθ and y=rsinθ with exact values
• I can convert rectangular → polar using r=√(x²+y²) and arctan, with correct quadrant adjustment
• I can handle r < 0 and θ < 0 constraints when converting to polar
• I can convert any rectangular equation to polar form
• I can convert any polar equation to rectangular form
• I know the shortcuts: r=constant → circle; θ=constant → line; r=a·cscθ → horizontal line
• I can identify whether a polar curve is a circle, limacon, or rose curve on sight
• I can determine the number of petals in a rose curve
• I can identify cardioid vs inner-loop limacon from the ratio |a/b|
• I know the unit circle trig values for all standard angles
• I can graph r = a·sinθ (circle)
• I can graph r = a + b·sinθ (limacon)
• I can graph r = a·cos(nθ) (rose curve)

Good luck on your test! You've got this.