UNIT III

MOBILE NETWORK LAYER

Mobile IP – DHCP – AdHoc– Proactive protocol-DSDV, Reactive Routing Protocols – DSR,
AODV, Hybrid routing –ZRP, Multicast Routing- ODMRP, Vehicular Ad Hoc networks (VANET) –
MANET Vs VANET – Security.

3.1 MOBILE IP
Terminology

 Mobile Node(MN)
 System (node) that can change the point of connection to the network without changing its
IP address
 Home Agent(HA)
 System in the home network of the MN, typically a router.
 Register the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagram to the COA.
 Foreign Agent(FA)
 System in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router.
 Typically the default router for the MN.
 Care-of Address(COA)
 Address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN.
 Actual location of the MN from an IP point of view.
 Can be chosen, eg via DHCP.
 Correspondent Node(CN)
 Communication partner.
3.2 KEY MECHANISM IN MOBILE IP (I)

FIGURE 3.2.1 PROCESS OF MOBILE IP

Mobile IP adds mobility support to the Internet network layer protocol IP.
 The Internet started at a time when no-one had a concept of mobilecomputers.
 The Internet of today lacks mechanisms for the support of userstraveling through the world.
 IP is the common base for thousands of applications and runs over dozens of different
networks; this is the reason forsupporting mobility at the IP layer.
Motivation for Mobile IP:
 Routing
• based on IP destination address, network prefix determinesphysical subnet
• Change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a topological correct address
(standard IP) or needs special entries inthe routing tables
Mobile IP (II)
 Create specific routes to end-systems – mobile nodes?
• change of all routing table entries to forward packets to the rightdestination
• does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequentchanges in the location
• Changing the IP address?
• adjust the host IP address depending on the current location.
• almost impossible to find a mobile host, DNS has not been built forfrequent updates
• TCP connection break
Mobile IP (III)
Requirements to Mobile IP:
Transparency
• mobile end-systems keep their IP address
• continuation of communication after interruption of link possible
• point of connection to the fixed network can be changed
Compatibility
• support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP does
• no changes to current end-systems and routers required
• Mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems
Mobile IP (IV)
Security
• authentication of all registration messages
Efficiency and scalability
• only little additional messages to the mobile system required(connection typically via a low
bandwidth radio link)
• world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in thewhole Internet
Real-life Solution
o Leave a forwarding address with your old post-office
o The old post-office forwards mail to your new post-office, which thendelivers it to you
Mobile IP - Definition
Mobile IP (MIP) is a modification to IP that allows nodes to continue to receive datagram no matter
where they happen to be attached to the Internet‖
Mobile IP (V)
Terminology:
 Mobile Node (MN)
• system (node) that can change the point of connection to the network without changing its IP
address
 Home Agent (HA)
• system in the home network of the MN, typically a router
• registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP data grams to the COA
 Foreign Agent (FA)
• system in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router
• forwards the tunneled data grams to the MN, typically also thedefault router of the MN
• Care-of Address (COA)
• address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN)
• actual location of the MN from an IP point of view
• can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP
• Correspondent Node (CN)
• communication partner
Mobile IP in detail …
Combination of 3 separable mechanisms:
o Discovering the care-of address
o Registering the care-of address
o Tunneling to the care-of address

FIGURE 3.2.2 ARCHITECTURE OF MOBILE IP TECHNOLOGY

Discovering the care-of address:
Discovery process built on top of an existing standard protocol routeradvertisements.
 Router advertisements extended to carry available care-of addresses called agentadvertisements.
 Foreign agents (and home agents) send agent advertisements periodically.
 A mobile host can choose not to wait for an advertisement, and issue a solicitation message.
MN FA HA CN

1 -- CoA and HA Discovery --

1. CoA Discovery
2
2. HA Discovery Request
3
3. HA Discovery Reply

-- Registration Procedure --
4. HA Registration BU
4
5 5. HA Registration BU Ack.

-- MN is Registered with HA --

-- CN starts co mmunication with MN --

6 6. Data Packet

7 7. IP-in-IP Encapsulation
8
8. Tunneled Data
9
9. Binding Update

10. Binding Ack

10

-- MN starts co mmunication with CN --

-- Discovery and Registration as above --
6a
6a. Data Packet

-- Signals 6-10 as above --

FIGURE 3.2.3 CARE-OF ADDRESS

Agent advertisements
 Foreign agents send advertisements to advertise available care-of addresses Home agents send
advertisements to make themselves known.
 Mobile hosts can issue agent solicitations to actively seek information.
 If mobile host has not heard from a foreign agent its current care-of address belongs to, it seeks for
another care-of address.
Registering the Care-of Address:
Once mobile host receives care-of address, it registers it with the home agent A registration
request is first sent to the home agent (through the foreign agent) Home agent then approves the
request and sends a registration reply back to themobile host .
Registration Illustration

FIGURE 3.2.4 REGISTRATION ILLUSTRATION

Home agent discovery
 If the mobile host is unable to communicate with the home agent, a home agent discovery message
is used
 The message is sent as a broadcast to the home agents in the home network
Tunneling to the Care-of address
When home agent receives packets addressed to mobile host, it forwards packets to the care-of
address
How does it forward it? - Encapsulation
 The default encapsulation mechanism that must be supported by all mobility agentsusing mobile IP
is IP-within-IP
 Using IP-within-IP, home agent inserts a new IP header in front of the IP header ofany datagram
Tunneling process
 Destination address set to the care-of address
 Source address set to the home agent’s address
 After stripping out the first header, IP processes the packet again
 Tunneling Illustration

FIGURE 3.2.5 TUNNELING ILLUSTRATION

3.3 DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network protocol for automatically assigning
TCP/IP information to client machines. Each DHCP client connects to the centrally-located DHCP
server which returns that client's networkconfiguration, including the IP address, gateway, and DNS
servers
DHCP is useful for automatic configuration of client network interfaces. When configuring the
client system, the administrator can choose DHCP and instead of entering an IP address,
netmask, gateway, or DNS servers. The client retrieves this information from the DHCP server.
DHCP is also useful if an administrator wants to change the IP addresses of a large number of
systems. Instead of reconfiguring all the systems, he can just edit one DHCP configuration file on
the server for the new set of IP addresses. If the DNS servers for an organization changes, the
changes are made onthe DHCP server, not on the DHCP clients. Once the network is restarted on
the clients (or the clients are rebooted), the changes take effect.
Furthermore, if a laptop or any type of mobile computer is configured for DHCP, it can be moved
from office to office without being reconfigured as long as each office has a DHCP server that
allows it to connect to the network.
Configuration File
 The first step in configuring a DHCP server is to create the configuration file that stores
the network information for the clients. Global options can be declared for all clients, while other
options can be declared for individual client systems.
 The configuration file can contain extra tabs or blank lines for easier formatting. Keywords
are case-insensitive and lines beginning with a hash mark (#) are considered comments.
 Two DNS update schemes are currently implemented — the ad-hoc DNS update mode
and the interim DHCP-DNS interaction draft update mode. If and when these two are accepted
as part of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) standards process, there will be a third
mode — the standard DNS update method. The DHCP server must be configured to use one of
the two current schemes. Version 3.0b2pl11 and previous versions used the ad-hoc mode;
however, it has been deprecated.
There are two types of statements in the configuration file:
 Parameters — State how to perform a task, whether to perform a task, or what network
configuration options to send to the client.
 Declarations — Describe the topology of the network, describe the clients, provide
addresses for the clients, or apply a group of parameters to a group of declarations.
Some parameters must start with the option keyword and are referred to as options. Options
configure DHCP options; whereas, parameters configure values that are not optional or control how
the DHCP server behaves.
In Example the routers, subnet-mask, domain-name, domain-name-servers, and time-offset
options are used for any host statements declared below it.
Additionally, a subnet can be declared, a subnet declaration must be included for every subnet
in the network. If it is not, the DHCP server fails to start.
In this example, there are global options for every DHCP client in the subnet and arange declared.
Clients are assigned an IP address within the range.
subnet [Link] netmask [Link]
{
option routers [Link];
option subnet-mask [Link];
option domain-name "[Link]";
option domain-name-servers [Link];
option time-offset -18000; } # Eastern Standard Time
range [Link] [Link];
Application
 Simplification of installation and maintenance of networked computers
 Supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP address, DNS server
address, domain name, subnet mask, default router etc.
 Enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the Internet, can be used to
acquire a COA for Mobile IP
Client/Server-Model
The client sends via a MAC broadcast a request to the DHCP server (might be viaa DHCP relay)
DHCP characteristics

FIGURE 3.6 CLIENT/SERVER-MODEL

 Server
Several servers can be configured for DHCP, coordination not yet
standardized (i.e., manual configuration)
 Renewal of configurations
IP addresses have to be requested periodically, simplified protocol
 Options
Available for routers, subnet mask, NTP (network time protocol) timeserver,
SLP (service location protocol) directory,
3.4 MANET
MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network also called a wireless adhoc network or Adhoc wireless
network that usually has a routable networking environment on top of a Link Layer ad hoc network.
They consist of a set of mobile nodes connected wirelessly in a self-configured, self-healing network
without having a fixed infrastructure. MANET nodes are free to move randomly as the network
topology changes frequently. Each node behaves as a router as it forwards traffic to other specified
nodes in the network.
What is MANET?
A MANET is a decentralized wireless network consisting of mobile devices (nodes) that
communicate with each other without relying on a fixed infrastructure. MANET forms a highly
dynamic autonomous topology with the presence of one or multiple different transceivers between
nodes. MANETs consist of a peer-to-peer, self-forming, self-healing network MANETs circa 2000-
2015 typically communicate at radio frequencies (30MHz-5GHz). This can be used in road safety,
ranging from sensors for the environment, home, health, disaster rescue operations, air/land/navy
defense, weapons, robots, etc.

FIGURE 3.4.1 MOBILE AD HOC NETWORK

Mobile Ad hoc Network Characteristics of MANET
Dynamic Topologies: Network topology which is typically multihop may change randomly and
rapidly with time, it can form unidirectional or bi-directional links.
Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links: Wireless links usually have lower reliability,
efficiency, stability, and capacity as compared to a wired network
Autonomous Behavior: Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its autonomous
behavior.
Energy Constrained Operation: As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other exhaustible
means for their energy. Mobile nodes are characterized by less memory, power, and lightweight
features.
Limited Security: Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A centralized firewall is
absent due to the distributed nature of the operation for security, routing, and host configuration.
Less Human Intervention: They require minimum human intervention to configure the network,
therefore they are dynamically autonomous in nature.
Advantages of MANET
 Separation from central network administration.
 Each node can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing autonomous nature.
 Self-configuring and self-healing nodes do not require human intervention.
 Highly scalable and suits the expansion of more network hub
3.5 PROACTIVE PROTOCOL
In Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET), nodes do not know the topology of their network, instead they
have to discover it by their own as the topology in the ad-hoc network is dynamic topology. The
basic rules is that a new node whenever enters into an ad-hoc network, must announce its arrival
and presence and should also listen to similar announcement broadcasts made by other mobile
nodes.

1. Pro-active routing protocols: These are also known as table-driven routing protocols. Each
mobile node maintains a separate routing table which contains the information of the routes to all
the possible destination mobile nodes.
Since the topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic, these routing tables are updated
periodically as and when the network topology changes. It has a limitation that it doesn't work well
for the large networks as the entries in the routing table becomes too large since they need to
maintain the route information to all possible nodes.
 Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing Protocol (DSDV): It is a pro-
active/table driven routing protocol. It actually extends the distance vector routing protocol
of the wired networks as the name suggests. It is based on the Bellman-ford routing
algorithm. Distance vector routing protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc networks due
to count-to-infinity problem. Hence, as a solution Destination Sequenced Distance Vector
Routing Protocol (DSDV) came into picture. Destination sequence number is added with
every routing entry in the routing table maintained by each node. A node will include the
new update in the table only if the entry consists of the new updated route to the destination
with higher sequence number.
 Global State Routing (GSR): It is a pro-active/table driven routing protocol. It actually
extends the link state routing of the wired networks. It is based on the Dijkstra's routing
algorithm. Link state routing protocol was not suited for mobile ad-hoc networks because in
it, each node floods the link state routing information directly into the whole network i.e.
Global flooding which may lead to the congestion of control packets in the network.
Hence, as a solution Global State Routing Protocol (GSR) came into the picture. Global state
routing doesn't flood the link state routing packets globally into the network. In GSR, each of the
mobile node maintains one list and three tables namely, adjacency list, topology table, next hop
table and distance table.
2. Reactive routing protocols: These are also known as on-demand routing protocol. In this type
of routing, the route is discovered only when it is required/needed. The process of route discovery
occurs by flooding the route request packets throughout the mobile network. It consists of two
major phases namely, route discovery and route maintenance.
 Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR): It is a reactive/on-demand routing protocol. In
this type of routing, the route is discovered only when it is required/needed. The process of
route discovery occurs by flooding the route request packets throughout the mobile
network. In this protocol, Source node stores the complete path information and
intermediate nodes do not need to maintain routing information. It consists of two phases:
 Route Discovery: This phase determines the most optimal path for the transmission of
 data packets between the source and the destination mobile nodes.
 Route Maintenance: This phase performs the maintenance work of the route as the
topology in the mobile ad-hoc network is dynamic in nature and hence, there are many
cases of link breakage resulting in the network failure between the mobile nodes.
 Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol (AODV): It is a reactive/on-demand routing
protocol. It is an extension of dynamic source routing protocol (DSR) and it helps to remove
the disadvantage of dynamic source routing protocol. In DSR, after route discovery, when
the source mobile node sends the data packet to the destination mobile node, it also
contains the complete path in its header. Hence, as the network size increases, the length
of the complete path also increases and the data packet's header size also increases which
makes the whole network slow.
Hence, Ad-Hoc On Demand Vector Routing protocol came as solution to it. The main difference
lies in the way of storing the path, in AODV Sourcenode does not stores complete path
information, instead of that each not stores information of its previous and next node. It also
operates in two phases: Route discovery and Route maintenance.
3. Hybrid Routing protocol: It basically combines the advantages of both, reactive and pro-active
routing protocols. These protocols are adaptive in nature and adapts according to the zone and
position of the source and destination mobile nodes. One of the most popular hybrid routing
protocol is Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP).
The whole network is divided into different zones and then the position of source and destination
mobile node is observed. If the source and destination mobile nodes are present in the same zone,
then proactive routing is used for the transmission of the data packets between them. And if the
source and destination mobile nodes are present in different zones, then reactive routing is used
for the transmission of the data packets between them.
3.6 DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE-VECTOR (DSDV) ROUTING PROTOCOL
Destination Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV) is an important MANET routing protocol. It is
based on the table-driven (proactive) approach to packet routing (Barbara, 1999). It extends the
distance vector protocol of wired networks just as the traditional algorithm makes uses of the classical
Gellman— Ford routing algorithm. An improvement made here is the avoidance of routing loops
through the use of a number sequencing scheme. In DSDV, each node in a MANET maintains a
routing table in which all of the possible destinations and the number of hops to each destination are
recorded. Hence, routing information is always readily available, regardless of whether the source
node requires aspecific route or not.
Each node maintains information regarding routes to all the known destinations. The routing
information is updated periodically. This can be considered a shortcoming of the protocol since it
deprives a node from going into sleeping mode. Also, there is a traffic overhead even if there is no
change in network topology. Further nodes maintain routes which they may never use.
A sequenced numbering system is used to allow mobile nodes to distinguish stale routes from new
ones. Updated routing tables are exchanged periodically among the nodes of the network to maintain
table consistency. A naive table exchange approach would generate a lot of control traffic in the
network, leading to inefficient utilization of the network resources. To alleviate this problem, DSDV
uses two types of route update packets. The first is known as full dump. This type of packet carries
all the available routing information and can require multiple network protocol data units (NPDUs) to
be transmitted. During periods of occasional movement, these packets are transmitted infrequently.
Smaller incremental packets are used to disseminate only the information that has changed since the
last full dump. These incremental broadcasts usually fit into a standard NPDU, thereby decreasing the
amount of traffic generated. The mobile nodes maintain an additional table where they store the data
received through the incremental routing information packets from various nodes.
New route broadcasts contain the address of the destination, the number of hops to reach the
destination, as well as a unique sequence number. The route labelled with the most recent
sequence number is always used. Up on a change, a node might receive several messages from
different sources. The weighted average time that routes to a destination will fluctuate before the
routewith the best metric received. Mobiles also keep track of this settling time of routes. By delaying
the broadcast of a routing update by the length of the settling time, mobiles can reduce network
traffic and optimize routes by eliminating thesuboptimal ones.
Important steps in the operation of DSDV:
The important steps in the operation of DSDV are summarized below:
1. Each router (node) in the network collects route information from all itsneighbors.
2. After gathering information, the node determines the shortest path to the destination
based on the gathered information.
3. Based on the gathered information, a new routing table is generated.
4. The router broadcasts this table to its neighbors. On receipt byneighbors the neighbor
nodes recomputed their respective routing tables
5. This process continues till the routing information becomes stable.
DSDV incorporates a sequenced numbering scheme. Each routing advertisement comes with a
sequence number Rabin an ad hoc network, advertisements may propagate along many paths.
Sequence numbers help anode to consider the advertisements in the correct order. This avoids the
loops that may form while using the unchanged distance vector algorithm.
Figure shows an example of a MANET. Table is the routing table of the node N4 at the moment
before the movement of nodes. The metric field in the routing table helps to determine the number of
hops required for a packet to traverse to its destination. The install time indicates when the entry was
made. Itis used to delete stale entries from the table.

FIGURE 3.6.1 DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE-VECTOR (DSDV) ROUTING PROTOCOL

3.7 DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING (DSR).

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) (Johnson and Maltz 1996, 2001) protocol was developed to be
suitable for use in a MANET having a reasonably small diameter of about 5 to 10 hops and when the
nodes do not move very fast. DSR is a source initiated on-demand (or reactive) routing protocol for
ad hoc networks. It uses source routing, a technique in which the sender of a packet determines the
complete sequence of nodes through which a packet has to travel. The sender of the packet then
explicitly records this list of all nodes in the packet's header. This makes it easyfor each node in the
path to identify the next node to which it should transmit the packet for routing the packet to its
destination. In this protocol, the nodes do not need to exchange the routing table information
periodically, which helps to reduce the bandwidth overhead associated with the protocol.
Each mobile node participating in the protocol maintains a routing cache which contains the list of all
routes that the node has learnt. Whenever a node finds a new route, it adds the new route to its
routing cache. Each mobile node also maintains a sequence counter called request id to uniquely
identify the last request it had generated. The pair < source address, request id > uniquely identifies
any request inthe ad hoc network.
DSR works in two phases:
 Route discovery
 Route maintenance
Route discovery:
Route discovery allows any host to dynamically discover the route to any destination in the ad hoc
network. When a node has a data packet to send, it firstchecks its own routing cache. If it finds a valid
route in its own routing cache, it sends out the packet using this route. Otherwise, it initiates a route
discovery process by broadcasting a route request packet to all its neighbours. The route request
packet contains the source address, the request id and a route record in which the sequence of hops
traversed by the request packet, before reaching thedestination is recorded.
A node upon getting a route request packet does the following. If a packet does not have the required
route in its routing cache, it forwards the packet to all its neighbours. A node forwards a route request
message only if it has not yet seen it earlier and if it is not the destination. The route request packet
initiates a route reply upon reception either by the destination node or by an intermediate node that
knows a route to the destination. Upon arrival of the route request message at the destination, this
information is piggybacked on to the route reply message that contains the path information and is
sent to the source node.
The route discovery process is schematically shown in Figure. As shownin the figure,
Suppose a node N1 wishes to send a message to the destination node Ng. The intermediate
nodes are N2 N3, N4, N5, N6, N7. The node N1 initiates the route discovery process by
broadcasting a route request packet to its neighbours N2 and N3. Note that each node can have
multiple copies of the route request packet arriving at it. The propagation of route reply is shown in
Figure, and the acknowledgement messages from destination to source are indicated by thick arrows.

FIGURE 3.7.1 DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING (DSR).

Route maintenance:
A known route can get broken either due to the movement of some nodes making up the route or the
battery of a node forming pert of the route getting exhausted. Route maintenance is the process of
monitoring the correct operationof a route in use and taking any corrective action when needed. When
a host (source) while using a route, finds that it is inoperative, it carries out route maintenance.
Whenever a node wanting to send a message finds that the routeis broken, it would help if it already
knows of some alternative routes. Since the nodes do not exchange any routing information in this
protocol, whenever a node detects that one of its next hop neighbour node is not responding, it sends
back a route error packet containing its own address and the address of the hop that is not working.
As soon as the source node receives the Route Error message, it deletes the broken-link-route from
its cache. If it has another route to the destination, it starts to retransmit the packet using the
alternative route. Otherwise, it initiates the route discovery process again.
3.8 MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR MANETS.
As we have already discussed, multicast is the delivery of a message to a group of destination nodes
in a single transmission as shown in Figure. For efficient operation of a multicast routing protocol, it is
necessary to minimize the unnecessary packet transmissions as well as minimize the energy
consumption.
In order to achieve this, a multicast transmission should not be approximated by multiple unicast
transmissions.

FIGURE 3.8 MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL FOR MANETS.

Efficient multicast routing is much more difficult to achieve in a MANET compared to any other
network. This is due to host mobility, broadcast nature of wireless environment, and interferences from
various noise sources. The proposed MANET multicast routing protocols either modify the conventional
tree structure, or deploy a different topology between group members. The popular MANET
multicasting protocols are either tree-based or mesh-based:
Tree-based protocol:
Tree-based schemes establish a single path between any two nodes inthe multicast group. These
schemes require minimum number of copies per packet to be sent along the branches of the tree.
Hence, they are bandwidth efficient. However, as mobility increases, link failures trigger the
reconfiguration of the entire tree. Another complicacy is that when there are many sources, a node
either has to maintain a shared tree, losing path optimality, or maintain multiple trees resulting in
storage and control overhead. An examples of this category of protocol is the Multicast Ad Hoc On-
demand Distance Vector (MAODV) (Royer and Perkins, 1999) Routing Protocol.
Mesh-based protocol:
Mesh-based schemes establish a mesh of paths that connect the sources and destinations. They are
more resilient to link failures as well as to mobility. The major disadvantage of this scheme is that
multiple copies of the same packet are disseminated through the mesh, resulting in reduced packet
delivery and increased control overhead under highly mobile conditions. An examples of this category
of protocol is the On- demand Multicast Routing Protocol (ODMRP).
3.9 ON- DEMAND MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL
1. On- Demand Multicast routing protocol is a mesh architecture protocol, i.e, it has multiple paths
from the sender to the receivers and uses a forwarding group concept.
2. It applies on-demand procedures to dynamically build route and maintain multicast group
membership.
3. By maintaining a mesh instead of a tree, the drawbacks of multicast trees in ad hoc networks like
frequent tree reconfiguration and non-shortest path in a shared tree are avoided.
4. In ODMRP, group membership and multicast routes are established by the source on demand
when a multicast source has packets to send, but no route to the multicast group, it broadcasts a
Join-Query control packets to the entire network.
5. This control packet is periodically broadcast to refresh the membership information and updates
routes.
6. When the Join-Query packet reaches a multicast receiver, it creates and broadcasts Join-
Reply to its neighbours. When it has been received by the node, it checks if the next hop own id.
7. If it is does, the node realizes that it is on the path to the source and becomes the part of the
forwarding group by setting the FG_FLAG (Forwarding Group flag).
8. When receiving a multicast data packet, a node forwards it only when it is not a duplicate,
hence minimizing traffic overhead. Because the nodes maintain soft state, finding the optimal flooding
interval is critical to ODMRP performance.
9. ODMRP uses location and movement information to predict the duration of time that routes will
remain valid. With the predicted time of route disconnection, a ―join data‖ packet is flooded when
route breaks of ongoing data sessions are imminent.
10. It reveals that ODMRP is better suited for ad hoc networks in terms of bandwidth utilization
3.10 VEHICULAR AD HOC NETWORKS (VANETS):
A Vehicular Ad Hoc Network (VANET) is a special type of MANET in which moving automobiles form
the nodes of the network. VANETs were initially introduced for vehicles of police, fire brigades, and
ambulances for safe travellingon road. In this network, a vehicle communicates with other vehicles that
are within a range of about 100 to 300 meters. Multi-hop communication often results in rather large
networks. In a city or a busy highway, the diameter of the networkcan be several tens of kilometers. Any
vehicle that goes out of the signal range of all other vehicles in the network is excluded from the
network. A vehicle that was outside the communication range of all other vehicles of a VANET can
come inthe range of a vehicle that is already in the network and as a result can join the network.

FIGURE 3.10 VANET

A VANET can offer a significant utility value to a motorist. A few important uses of a VANET are
described below:
1. A VANET can help drivers to get advance information and warnings from a nearby
environment via message exchanges. For example, in the scenario shown in Figure 7.6, two
vehicles are involved in a collision. The trailing vehicles get advance notification of the collision
ahead on the road. The driver can also get advance information on the road condition ahead or a
warning about the application of emergency electronic brake by a vehicle ahead in the lane.
2. A VANET can help disseminate geographical information to the driver as he continues to
drive. For example, the driver would be notified of the nearby food malls or petrol refilling stations,
map display, etc.
3. Drivers may have the opportunity to engage in other leisurely tasks, such as VolP with
family, watch news highlights, listen to series of media files known as podcasts, or even carry out
some business activities such as participate in an office video conference session.
3.11 SECURITY IN A MANET:
MANETS are fundamentally different from both wired networks and infrastructure-based wireless
networks. The nature of MANETs not only introduces new security concerns but also exacerbates the
problem of detecting and preventing anomalous behavior. In a wired network or in an infrastructure-
based wireless network, an intruder is usually a host that is outside the network and therefore could
be controlled through a firewall and subjected to access control and authentication. In a MANET, on
the other hand, an intruder is part of the network, and therefore much more difficult to detect and
isolate.
Dynamic topological changes and the inherent wireless communications in a MANET, make it
vulnerable to different types of attacks. At the physical layeran intruder can easily cause jamming or
overload the available network resources beyond their capacities, thereby effectively paralyzing it.
Wireless links can get jammed and the batteries at the nodes can get depleted by such overloading,
causing breakdowns of the network. Attackers can also disturb the normal operation of routing
protocols by modifying the headers of packets. The intruder may insert spurious information while
routing packets, causing erroneousrouting table updates and thereby leading to frequent misrouting.
A few important characteristics of ad hoc networks that can be exploited to cause security
vulnerabilities are the following:
 Lack of physical boundary:
Each mobile node functions as a router and forwards packets from other nodes. As a result,
network boundaries become blurred. The distinction between nodes that are internal or external to
a network becomes meaningless, making it difficult to deploy firewalls or monitor the incoming
traffic.
 Low power RE transmissions:
It is possible for a malicious node to continuously transmit and monopolise the medium and cause
its neighboring nodes to wait endlessly for transmitting their messages. Also, signal jamming can
lead to a denial-of-service (DoS)attack.
 Limited computational capabilities:
Nodes in an ad hoc network usually have limited computational capabilities. It therefore becomes
difficult to deploy compute-intensive security solutions such as setting up a public-key
cryptosystem. Inability to encrypt messages invites a host of security attacks such as spoofing as
well as several forms of routing attacks.
 Limited power supply:
Since nodes normally rely on battery power, an attacker might attempt to exhaust batteries by
causing unnecessary transmissions to take place or might cause excessive computations to be
carried out by the nodes.
Characteristics of secure ad hoc networks:
We discuss below a few important characteristics of a secure ad hoc network. Different types of
attacks on the network attempt to breach one or more of thesesecurity features. A security solution
should ensure that these characteristics are not compromised.
A secure ad hoc network should have the following characteristics:
 Availability: It should be able to survive denial-of-service (DoS) attacks.
 Confidentiality: It should protect confidentiality of information by preventing its access by
unauthorized users.
 Integrity: It should guarantee that no transferred message has been tampered
with.
 Authentication: It should help a node to obtain guarantee about the true identity of a
peer node.
 Non-repudiation: It should ensure that a node having sent a message, cannot
deny it.
 PART-A

1. The main purpose of Mobile IP is to

a) Increase bandwidth
b) Support mobility with a permanent IP address
c) Reduce routing overhead
d) Improve security
2. Which entity maintains the current location of the mobile node?
a) Foreign Agent
b) Router
c) Home Agent
d) DHCP Server
3. The temporary IP address assigned to a mobile node is called
a) Static IP
b) Home Address
c) Care-of Address
d) MAC Address
4. DHCP stands for
a) Dynamic Host Control Protocol
b) Data Host Configuration Protocol
c) Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
d) Distributed Host Configuration Protocol
5. Which message is sent first in DHCP operation?
a) Offer
b) Request
c) Discover
d) Acknowledge
[Link] full form of DORA is
a) Discover–Offer–Request–Acknowledge
b) Detect–Open–Request–Accept
c) Data–Offer–Receive–Assign
d) Discover–Open–Reply–Acknowledge
7. MANET stands for
a) Mobile Area Network
b) Mobile Ad Hoc Network
c) Multiple Access Network
d) Managed Ad Hoc Network
8. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of MANET?
a) Infrastructure-less
b) Dynamic topology
c) Centralized control
d) Multi-hop routing
[Link] is based on which routing algorithm?
a) Link State
b) Distance Vector
c) Flooding
d) Source Routing
10. DSDV uses ______ to avoid routing loops.
a) Hop count
b) TTL
c) Sequence numbers
d) Time stamps
[Link] routing protocols maintain
a) Routes only when required
b) Routes to all nodes at all times
c) No routing tables
d) Partial network information
[Link] protocol uses source routing?
a) AODV
b) DSDV
c) DSR
d) ZRP
[Link] AODV, routes are discovered using
a) Hello packets
b) Routing tables only
c) RREQ and RREP messages
d) Multicast packets
14. Which protocol has high packet header overhead?
a) AODV
b) DSDV
c) DSR
d) ZRP
[Link] is a combination of
a) DSDV and AODV
b) Proactive and Reactive routing
c) Wired and Wireless routing
d) Unicast and Multicast routing

PART B
1. List the characteristics of MANET’s
2. How does VANET differ from a MANET?
3. Define route optimization? (Apr/May 2023)
4. Why the traditional routing strategies cannot be deployed in a MANET?
5. Compare the MANET routing strategies with the routing strategies oftraditional networks.
6. What is mean by dynamic topology of a MANET?
7. Mention few applications of mobile ad hoc networks.
8. What are the issues that are addressed by a routing protocol in a MANET?
9. What is the difference between reactive and proactive routing in MANETs?
10. Define wireless sensor network? How it is different from a MANET?
11. Compare reactive and proactive routing in MANET. (Apr/May 2023)
12. What are the different categories of routing protocols for mobile ad hocnetworks?
13. Define VANET. (Apr/May 2022)
14. What are the characteristics of a secure ad hoc network?
15. Give short note on security attacks in ad hoc networks.

PART C & D
1. Describe how is an Ad Hoc network set up without the infrastructuresupport?
2. Discuss why is Routing in a MANET a complex task when compared to wired
networks.
3. Explain the working of the Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV) routing
protocol using suitable examples. (Apr/May 2022)
4. Explain Dynamic Source Routing (DSR). Highlight the route discovery and route
maintenance operations.
5. Examine, How does dynamic source routing handle routing? What is the motivation
between dynamic source routing compared to other routing algorithms from fixed. (Apr/May
2023)
6. Give an example of a core based multicast routing protocol for MANETs. Explain its
working.
7. Describe briefly about VANET and its advantages. (Apr/May 2023)
8. Describe the security measures that can be incorporated in each layer of protocol stacks
of MANETs.
9. Explain the design issues of MANET.