TO :

FROM : GERALD YOLAMU

PROGRAM : FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING

COURSE NAME : COMPUTING

COURSE CODE : FA2

LEVEL : LEVEL 4

SEMESTER :1

DUE DATE : 01/11/2023

Analog computers can have a very wide range of complexity. Slide rules and nomograms are the
simplest, while naval gunfire control computers and large hybrid digital/analog computers were among
the most complicated. Complex mechanisms for process control and protective relays used analog
computation to perform control and protective functions.

Computers were widely used in scientific and industrial applications even after the advent of digital
computers, because at the time they were typically much faster, but they started to become obsolete as
early as the 1950s and 1960s, although they remained in use in some specific applications, such as
aircraft flight simulators, the flight computer in aircraft, and for teaching control systems in universities.
Perhaps the most relatable example of analog computers are mechanical watches where the continuous
and periodic rotation of interlinked gears drives the second, minute and hour needles in the clock. More
complex applications, such as aircraft flight simulators and synthetic-aperture radar, remained the
domain of analog computing (and hybrid computing) well into the 1980s, since digital computers were
insufficient for the task.

Digital computers

By 1938, the United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog computer small enough to
use aboard a submarine. This was the Torpedo Data Computer, which used trigonometry to solve the
problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During World War II similar devices were developed in
other countries as well.

Early digital computers were electromechanical; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform
the calculation. These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much
faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes.

Modern computers

The principle of the modern computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his seminal 1936 paper, On
Computable Numbers. Turing proposed a simple device that he called "Universal Computing machine"
and that is now known as a universal Turing machine. He proved that such a machine is capable of
computing anything that is computable by executing instructions (program) stored on tape, allowing the
machine to be programmable. The fundamental concept of Turing's design is the stored program, where
all the instructions for computing are stored in memory. Von Neumann acknowledged that the central
concept of the modern computer was due to this paper. Turing machines are to this day a central object
of study in theory of computation. Except for the limitations imposed by their finite memory stores,
modern computers are said to be Turing-complete, which is to say, they have algorithm execution
capability equivalent to a universal Turing machine.

He next great advance in computing power came with the advent of the integrated circuit (IC). The idea
of the integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist working for the Royal Radar
Establishment of the Ministry of Defence, Geoffrey W.A. Dummer. Dummer presented the first public
description of an integrated circuit at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in
Washington, D.C., on 7 May 1952.

First working ICs were invented by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and Robert Noyce at Fairchild
[Link] recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, successfully
demonstrating the first working integrated example on 12 September 1958.[84] In his patent application
of 6 February 1959, Kilby described his new device as "a body of semiconductor material ... wherein all
the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated".[85][86] However, Kilby's invention
was a hybrid integrated circuit (hybrid IC), rather than a monolithic integrated circuit (IC) [Link]'s IC
had external wire connections, which made it difficult to mass-produce.

Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby.[89] Noyce's
invention was the first true monolithic IC chip.[90][88] His chip solved many practical problems that
Kilby's had not. Produced at Fairchild Semiconductor, it was made of silicon, whereas Kilby's chip was
made of germanium. Noyce's monolithic IC was fabricated using the planar process, developed by his
colleague Jean Hoerni in early 1959. In turn, the planar process was based on Mohamed M. Atalla's work
on semiconductor surface passivation by silicon dioxide in the late 1950s.[91][92][93]

Modern monolithic ICs are predominantly MOS (metal–oxide–semiconductor) integrated circuits, built
from MOSFETs (MOS transistors).[94] The earliest experimental MOS IC to be fabricated was a 16-
transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and Steven Hofstein at RCA in 1962. General Microelectronics later
introduced the first commercial MOS IC in 1964, developed by Robert Norman. Following the
development of the self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOS transistor by Robert Kerwin, Donald Klein and
John Sarace at Bell Labs in 1967, the first silicon-gate MOS IC with self-aligned gates was developed by
Federico Faggin at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968. The MOSFET has since become the most critical
device component in modern ICs.

The development of the MOS integrated circuit led to the invention of the microprocessor and heralded
an explosion in the commercial and personal use of computers. While the subject of exactly which
device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact
definition of the term "microprocessor", it is largely undisputed that the first single-chip microprocessor
was the Intel 4004,designed and realized by Federico Faggin with his silicon-gate MOS IC technology,
along with Ted Hoff, Masatoshi Shima and Stanley Mazor at Intel. In the early 1970s, MOS IC technology
enabled the integration of more than 10,000 transistors on a single chip.

System on a Chip (SoCs) are complete computers on a microchip (or chip) the size of a coin. They may or
may not have integrated RAM and flash memory. If not integrated, the RAM is usually placed directly
above (known as Package on package) or below (on the opposite side of the circuit board) the SoC, and
the flash memory is usually placed right next to the SoC, this all done to improve data transfer speeds,
as the data signals do not have to travel long distances. Since ENIAC in 1945, computers have advanced
enormously, with modern SoCs (Such as the Snapdragon 865) being the size of a coin while also being
hundreds of thousands of times more powerful than ENIAC, integrating billions of transistors, and
consuming only a few watts of power.
Mobile computers

The first mobile computers were heavy and ran from mains power. The 50 lb (23 kg) IBM 5100 was an
early example. Later portables such as the Osborne 1 and Compaq Portable were considerably lighter
but still needed to be plugged in. The first laptops, such as the Grid Compass, removed this requirement
by incorporating batteries – and with the continued miniaturization of computing resources and
advancements in portable battery life, portable computers grew in popularity in the 2000s. The same
developments allowed manufacturers to integrate computing resources into cellular mobile phones by
the early 2000s.

Smartphones and tablets run on a variety of operating systems and recently became the dominant
computing device on the [Link] are powered by System on a Chip (SoCs), which are complete
computers on a microchip the size of a coin.

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS

The history of computing hardware is often used to reference the different generations of computing
devices:

First generation computers (1940-1955): It used vacuum tubes such as the 6J6 or specially designed
tubes - or even mechanical arrangements, and were relatively slow, energy-hungry and the earliest
computers were less flexible in their programmability.

Second generation computers (1956-1963): It used discrete transistors, and so were smaller and
consumed less power.

Third generation computers (1964-1970): It used Integrated Circuits (ICs), the main difference between
hardware in computers of the 1960s and today being the density of transistors in each IC (beginning
with Small Scale Integration chips like the Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) SN7400 gates with 20
transistors, through Medium Scale Integration and Large Scale Integration to Very-large-scale
integration (VLSI) with over ten billion transistors in a single silicon-based IC "chip".

Fourth generation computers(1971–present): It uses Microprocessors, as millions of ICs were built onto
a single silicon-based chip. Since then form factor of computers reduced, task processing & graphic
rendering improved and it became more battery-powered with the advent of personal mobile devices
such as laptops, tablets, smartphones etc.

Reference

"1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip". Computer History Museum.
Archived from the original on 12 August 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2019.

Colinge, Jean-Pierre; Greer, James C. (2016). Nanowire Transistors: Physics of Devices and Materials
in One Dimension. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1107052406. Retrieved 31 July 2019.
"Intel's First Microprocessor—the Intel 4004". Intel Corp. November 1971. Archived from the original
on 13 May 2008. Retrieved 17 May 2008.

Patterson, David; Hennessy, John (1998). Computer Organization and Design. San Francisco: Morgan
Kaufmann. pp. 27–39. ISBN 978-1-55860-428-5.

Federico Faggin, The Making of the First Microprocessor Archived 27 October 2019 at the Wayback
Machine, IEEE Solid-State Circuits Magazine, Winter 2009, IEEE Xplore

"7 dazzling smartphone improvements with Qualcomm's Snapdragon 835 chip". 3 January 2017.
Archived from the original on 30 September 2019. Retrieved 5 April 2019.

Chartier, David (23 December 2008). "Global notebook shipments finally overtake desktops". Ars
Technica. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 14 June 2017.

IDC (25 July 2013). "Growth Accelerates in the Worldwide Mobile Phone and Smartphone Markets in
the Second Quarter, According to IDC". Archived from the original on 26 June 2014.

"Google Books Ngram Viewer". [Link].