Unit Five

Human body system

 Body coordination
Nervous system and endocrine system are responsible for
body coordination.

 Nervous system Endocrine system

Minutes to hours
Speed of action Seconds
(even days)
Seconds to Minutes to days
Duration of action
minutes
Method of transmitting
Electrical Chemical
messages
Transport method Neurons Hormones
 The nervous system
 Body’s primary command, control and communication network.
 responsible for reception and processing of sensory information.
 takes in information from receptors.
 has two major divisions:
- central nervous system (CNS)- brain and spinal cord.
- peripheral nervous system (PNS) nerves outside CNS.
 has three specific functions:
1. receives sensory input by sensory receptors of sense organs
2. information processing and integration.
3. CNS generates motor output- signals from CNS go by way of
PNS to the muscles, glands, and organs.
 Con’d

Fig. Nervous system

 Neurons and their functions
 Nervous system is composed of only two principal types of cells:
neurons and supporting cells (glial cells).
 Neurons:- basic structural and functional units of nervous system.
- specialized to respond to physical and chemical stimuli,
- conduct electrochemical impulses
- release chemical regulators.
- enable perception of sensory stimuli, learning, memory, and
control of muscles and glands.
 Supporting cells:- are about five times more abundant than neurons.
- collectively called neuroglia, or simply glial cells
- provide support, nourishment and protection to neurons
 Con’d
 All neurons consist of:
1. Cell body:- known as a soma, neuron’s core.
- consists of nucleus- carries genetic information, maintains neuron’s
structure, and provides energy.
- most are located inside CNS and form the grey matter.
- which located in peripheral nervous system are called ganglia.
2. Axon:- only one, conducts information away from cell body.
- delivers impulse to another neuron or a gland or a muscle.
- each called nerve fibers, and collectively form a nerve.
- insulated with a fatty substance called myelin sheath.
3. Dendrites:
- short extensions, receive signals from sensory receptors or other neurons.
- neurons can have more than one set of dendrites, known as dendritic trees.
 Con’d
 Myelin sheath: fatty substance, protect neuron and electrically
insulate axon, speeding up impulse transmission.

 Schwann cells wrapped around neuron, form myelin sheath.

 Nodes of Ranvier: gaps along myelin sheath. Function to recharge
action potential.
 Some nerve fibres are unmyelinated, & this makes impulse
transmission slower. B/c rapid transmission is not critical, saving
metabolic energy and space.
 Types of neurons
 Neurons vary in structure and function.

 In terms of function, three types : sensory, motor, and interneurons.

1. Sensory (affector/ afferent) neurons:

• carry messages from sensory receptors to CNS.
• have long dendrite and short axon.
• triggered by physical and chemical inputs from stimuli.
2. Motor (effector/ efferent) neurons:
• transmit messages from CNS to effectors (muscles or glands).
• have long axon and short dendrites.
• play a role in voluntary and involuntary movements.
• allow brain and spinal cord to communicate with muscles, organs, and glands.
3. Interneurons (association neurons):
• found entirely within CNS.
• pass signals from sensory to motor neurons, or to integrate these functions.
 Con’d
• Summary of information flows:

Stimulus Reception by sensory receptor transmission by

afferent neuron Integration by interneurons in CNS
transmission by efferent neuron action by effectors.
Fig. Types of neuron
 Nerve
 a group of neurons (bundles of neurons) with blood vessels and
connective tissue.
Sensory (afferent) nerves: made only of sensory neurons.

- optic nerves for vision and olfactory nerves for smell are examples.

Motor (efferent) nerves: made only of motor neurons

- autonomic nerves are motor nerves.

Mixed nerve: contains both sensory and motor neurons.

- most peripheral nerves, such as sciatic nerves in legs are examples.

Nerve tract:- groups of myelinated neurons within CNS.

- concerned with either sensory or motor activity.
- often referred to as white matter; myelin sheaths give them white color
 Nerve Impulse and transmission
 Nerve impulse is a minute electrical event that works as a result of
charge differences across membrane of axon.

 Action potential:

- wave of positive charge inside axon when neuron is stimulated.

- a short- term change in electrical potential.

 Resting Potential:

- axon is resting, its membrane is polarized; outside is positive

inside is negative.
- when axon is not conducting an impulse, voltmeter records a
membrane potential equal to about -65 mV (millivolts),
indicating that inside of neuron is more negative than outside.
 Con’d

Fig. Resting
potential

• Synapse: junction b/n two neurons (axon-to-dendrite) or neuron and muscle

• Threshold potential: minimum level/voltage of depolarization
around -55mv that a neuron must reach to trigger action potential.
• Hyperpolarization: increasing neuronal membrane potential to
more negative than its usual resting potential (induce to produce action
potential)
• Refractory period: a brief period following generation of action
potential, during which a neuron is hard to re-excite
 Con’d
Polarization

 In resting, inside of membrane has -ve electrical potential (-40mv to -90mv)

 Interstitial fluid has high concentration of Na+ ion,16 times higher

outside the neuron than inside neuron.

 Axoplasm (jel-like cytoplasm within axon) has high concentration

of K+ ion, 25 times higher inside than outer interstitial fluids.

 Due to difference in Na, K concentration, Na+ ions diffuse inside

axoplasm and K+ ions tends to diffuse outside of it.

 Resting membrane of neuron is more permeable to K+ ion than Na+

ion. So, K+ leaves the neuron faster than Na+ enter the neuron.
 Con’d
 Na channels are opened but K channels are closed and Na+ions
flood in through cell membrane and create a +ve charge of +40mv.
 It is a very short periods (3 millisecs) that change in potential.
 When an action potential occurs, axon is said to be depolarized.
 Depolarization of membrane stimulates adjacent voltage channel,
so action potential passes as a wave along the length of neuron.
 Na+ and K+ are transported across the membrane against their
concentration gradient by carrier protein, which is called Na-K
pump and energy is used.
 Difference in permeability results accumulation of high
concentration of cation (+ve ion) outside the neuron compared to
cation inside.
 Con’d
Depolarization:

o Acetylcholine released by axon terminal makes the sarcolemma

very permeable to Na+ ions, which enter the cell and cause a
reversal of charges to (-ve) outside and (+ve) inside.

o depolarization spreads along the entire sarcolemma and initiates

the contraction process.

o Folds of sarcolemma called T tubules carry depolarization into

interior of muscle cell.

o As depolarization takes place, neuron becomes very permeable to

K+, which rush out of cell.
 Con’d
o Then the sodium and potassium pumps return Na+ ions outside
and K+ ions inside, and the neuron is ready to respond to another
stimulus and transmit another impulse.
Fig. Action potential begins: depolarization
 Con’d
Repolarization
 Sodium channels are closed potassium channel are opened and
K+ions diffuse out along their concentration gradient.
 This starts repolarization and resting potential going to reestablish.
 At the same time nerve become less permeable for Na+ than K+.
So many K+ flow out and inside charge become more negative.
 Na-k pump starts and normal concentrations of Na and K ions are
reestablished.
 Each pump actively transports two K+ ions into the cell to every
three Na+ ions transported out.
 The membrane is once again at its resting potential.
 Con’d
Action Potential:
• An action potential is a rapid change in polarity across a
portion of an axonal membrane as nerve impulse occurs.
• Uses two types of gated ion channels.
• When nerve fiber is conducting a nerve impulse, a change in
polarity occurs.
• First, inside of axon becomes positive (depolarization), and
then inside becomes negative (repolarization).
• Requires two types of channels: One allow Na ions to pass
through membrane, and the other can allow K ions to pass.
• During depolarization, Na ions move to the inside of axon,
and during repolarization, K ions move to the outside.
 Con’d

Fig. Action potential ends Action potential graph

Fig. Conduction of Action

Potentials
 Synapse
• gap when one neuron ends and another begins.
• neuron-neuron synapse: between axon of one neuron and dendrites of second.
• axon of presynaptic neuron ends in slight swellings, axon terminals (synaptic knob).
• synaptic knob contains synaptic vesicles, store chemical messenger, neurotransmitter
• synaptic knob comes close to, but does not touch, postsynaptic neuron
• space between presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons is called synaptic cleft.
• Synaptic transmission:- process impulse in presynaptic neuron signals postsynaptic.
- a one-way process carried out by neurotransmitters.
• Impulse travels along axon of presynaptic neuron to axon terminal.
• When an impulse reaches a synaptic knob, voltage-sensitive calcium channels open and
calcium diffuses inward from extracellular fluid.
• Increased calcium concentration inside cell initiates a series of events that fuses synaptic
vesicles with the cell membrane, where they release their neurotransmitter by exocytosis.
 Con’d

Fig. Synapse Fig. Signal transmission through a synapse

 Neurotransmitters
• Are body's chemical messengers.
• Molecules that transmit messages between neurons, or from
neurons to muscles.
• Acetylcholine (ACh) is abundant neurotransmitter in human body.
• Found in both CNS and PNS.
Excitatory transmitter: promotes generation of action potential;
increase the likelihood of response. E.g. glutamate
Inhibitory transmitter: decrease the likelihood of response.
e.g. GABA (gamma aminobutric acid)
• Whether a neurotransmitter is excitatory or inhibitory depends on
the receptor it binds to.
 Types of nervous system
 Two types:- Central nervous system (CNS)- brain and spinal cord

- Peripheral nervous system (PNS)- nerves.

Nervous system

Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system

Brain Spinal cord Somatic NS Autonomic NS

Sympathetic parasympathetic
 Central Nervous System
• is delicate.

• damaged nerve cells cannot be replaced

• must be well protected.

• Protected from injury by:

1. Brain and spinal cord are enclosed by cranium (skull) and
vertebral column (spine) respectively.
2. Three protective and nourishing membranes, meninges,
lie between the bony covering and nervous tissue.
 CNS Con’d
• The meninges consist of three connective tissue layers:
Dura mater:- lies closest to bone of skull
- a double layer of tough, fibrous, connective tissue.
- outer layer is called periosteal layer (spinal cord lacks this).
Arachnoid mater:- between dura mater and arachnoid mater there is
a space called subdural space.
- delicate serous membrane.
- subarachnoid space is below arachnoid mater and above pia mater.
- subarachnoid space contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood vessels.

Pia mater:- delicate connective tissue that clings tightly to brain.

- contains many tiny blood vessels that serve the brain.
 Brain
• floats in a cushioning fluid, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

• CSF is a thin fluid like plasma has several functions:

- acts as a cushion, supporting and protecting it

- maintain a uniform pressure around
- there is a limited exchange of nutrients and waste
between neurons and CSF.

• composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem

(Medula)
 Cerebrum
• also called telencephalon
• largest portion of brain.
• composed of right and left hemispheres.
• functions: interpreting touch, vision and hearing, speech,
reasoning, emotions, learning, and control of movement.

Hypothalamus
 “under thalamus”, center for homeostatic control.
 regulates thirst, appetite, and body temperature.
 controls sex drive and is endocrine gland that interacts with
pituitary gland.
 Con’d

Fig. Parts of human brain

 Thalamus
• superior to hypothalamus and inferior to cerebrum.

• concerned with sensation.

• right side of the body is controlled by the left portion of

the brain, and the left portion of the body is controlled by
the right portion of the brain.

• brain stem also has reflex centers for visual, auditory, and
tactile responses.
 Cerebellum
• lies under occipital lobe of cerebrum.
• separated from brain stem by fourth ventricle.
• largest part of hindbrain.
• receives sensory input from eyes, ears, joints, and muscles, and
also receives motor output from cerebral cortex.
• sends motor impulses by way of brain stem to skeletal muscles.
• maintains posture and balance.
• assists learning new motor skills- playing piano or hitting baseball.
• New evidence indicates it is important in judging passage of time.
 Medulla
• medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain constitute the brainstem.
• brainstem connects spinal cord to the rest of the brain
• pons (“bridge” in Latin) contains bundles of axons traveling between
cerebellum and the rest of CNS.
• pons functions with medulla to regulate breathing rate, and has reflex
centers concerned with head movements in response to visual & auditory
stimuli.
• Medulla oblongata contains reflex for regulating heartbeat, breathing,
blood pressure, vomiting, coughing, sneezing, hiccupping & swallowing.
• Medulla oblongata lies superior to spinal cord, and contains tracts that
ascend or descend between spinal cord and higher brain centers.
 White and gray matter
• found in the brain and spinal cord.
Gray matter
- primarily made up of cell bodies.
- areas of brain and spinal cord consisting of unmyelinated axon
White matter
- consists of bundled axons.
- areas of brain and spinal cord composed of myelinated axons
• In the spinal cord, white matter forms outer layer, linking CNS to
sensory and motor neurons of PNS.
• In the brain, white matter is located in the interior, signaling
between neurons: learning, feeling emotions, processing sensory
information, and generating commands.
 White and gray matter con’d

Fig. White and grey matter

 Spinal cord
 has a much simpler structure than the brain.
 tubular structure composed of nervous tissue that extends from
brainstem and tapering at the lower thoracic/upper lumbar region as
the conus medullaris (the terminal end of the spinal cord).
 runs out from the brain down the body.
 nerves come out of spinal cord are known as spinal nerves- stretch
to arms, legs, trunk.
 grey matter located in the middle whereas white matter outside.
 has entrance points at regular intervals for affector nerves that
bring information into the CNS and exit points for effector nerves.
 Spinal cord con’d

Fig. Cross-section of CNS

Fig. spinal cord and spinal nerves

 Dura mater
o thick outermost covering (meninges) of brain and spinal cord.

o layers of connective tissue that make up meninges of brain

(dura, arachnoid, and pia).

Pia mater
o innermost covering of spinal cord and brain.

o stabilizes spinal cord through lateral extensions of pia called

denticulate ligaments, extending between ventral and dorsal
roots up to the dura mater.
 Peripheral Nervous System
• all nerves that lie outside of CNS

• subdivided into afferent division

and efferent division.

• afferent division carries signals

to CNS and efferent division
carries signals from CNS.

• 31 pairs of spinal nerves, and 12

pairs of cranial nerves.
• further subdivided into somatic
nervous system and autonomic
nervous system.
 Somatic Nervous System
 carrying out sensory and motor information to & from CNS
 derives its name from Greek word soma, means "body.“
 Control voluntary movements and transmit sensory information.
 Target skeletal muscle

Autonomic Nervous System

 regulate involuntary functions- blood flow, heartbeat, digestion,
and breathing.
 Target smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
 further divided into two: sympathetic and parasympathetic
 Sympathetic system
 Preparing for ‘flight-or-fight’ response. (stress/danger)
 accelerating heart rate, increasing breathing rate, boosting
blood flow, activating sweat secretion, and dilating pupils.

Parasympathetic system
 maintain normal body functions and conserve physical
resources. Manage rest and digest (relaxation).
 slow heart rate, slow breathing, reduce blood flow to muscles,
and constrict the pupils.
 allows us to return our bodies to a normal resting state.
 Con’d

Fig. Autonomic nervous system

 Reflex action
 faster, sudden, automatic and uncontrolled response of parts of or

whole body to external stimuli.

 helping us to avoid danger or damage.

 respond to the situation, without conscious thought.

Reflex arc
 pathway of neurons involved in a reflex action.

 simplest situations where impulses cross synapses to action

 means of rapidly integrate & co-coordinate stimulus with response

 pathway that nerve impulses travel when a reflex is elicited,

 Con’d
 There are five essential parts:
1. Receptors: detect change (stimulus) and generate impulse
2. Sensory neurons: transmit impulses from receptors to CNS.
3. CNS: contains one/more synapses (interneurons may be part of pathway).
4. Motor neurons: transmit impulses from CNS to effector.
5. Effector: performs its characteristic action.

Fig. Path of reflex action

 Con’d
 Impulse from receptor pass
along affector neuron to CNS–
spinal cord.
 Neuron enters the spinal cord
through dorsal root.
 When impulse arrives synapse a
transmitter is released, which
causes an impulse to be sent
along relay neuron.
 When impulse reaches b/n relay
neuron and effector neuron another
transmitter chemical released
 Impulse travel along effector
neuron to effector, brings change.
 Effector neuron leaves spinal
cord by ventral root. Fig. The reflex action
 Con’d
• Some reflexes are important for avoiding injury, but knee-jerk and ankle-
jerk reflexes are important for normal physiological functions.
• knee-jerk reflex helps a person stand erect.
• In a reflex action messages do not reach a conscious area of your brain
before instructions are sent out to take action.
• Many reflexes involve spinal cord, whereas others involve the brain.
• Relay neurons (interneurons with short axons) connect affector and
effector neurons directly in CNS.
• Receptors, neurons and effectors involved are referred to as a reflex arc.
• Brain and spinal cord act together as a coordinators, process information,
instruct effector neurons and effectors to react.
 Drug abuse
Drugs :

 substances that change a person’s mental or physical state.

 affect the way brain works, and your senses.
 makes people develop unpredictable and dangerous behavior.
 are used for medicine and for pleasure.
 socially acceptable and illegal- related to its effect or history of use.
 Drug (substance) use is when a substance is used to the extent that
affects the brain and/or body function and mental activity.
 Legal drugs are used for pleasure, to be sociable and as a habit.
 People may start to use illegal drugs for the same reasons.
 Drug abuse con’d
 Drug (or substance) abuse: when a person uses a substance to the
point of excess and/or dependence.
 Drug dependence: person use drug again & again become addicted
 Substance use disorder (SUD) or drug addiction is a disease that
negatively affects a person’s brain and behavior.
 Nicotine, marijuana and alcohol are commonly misused drugs in the
world.
 Alcohol, khat and tobacco are substances widely used in Ethiopia.
 Alcohol, khat and tobacco are legal in Ethiopia but cannabis illegal.
 Drugs such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), ecstasy, cocaine
and heroin are illegal but rarely used in Ethiopia.
 Smoking
• has addictive drug, nicotine, which produces calm, and well-being.
• also contains many very harmful chemicals
What is dopamine?
• a chemical released in the brain that makes you feel good.
• having the right amount is important for body and brain.
• helps nerve cells to send messages to each other.
How does nicotine use lead to addiction?
• nicotine causes the release of dopamine in the brain
• causes the person temporarily feel good.
• Inhaled smoke delivers nicotine to the brain within 20 seconds,
which makes it very addictive.
 Alcohol
 most commonly used drugs in Ethiopia.
 has a powerful effect on the brain, producing pleasurable
feelings and blunting negative feelings.
 addiction is a chronic relapsing disorder associated with
compulsive alcohol drinking, loss of control over intake,
and emergence of a negative emotional state when alcohol
is no longer available.
 Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is a condition characterized
by an impaired ability to stop or control alcohol use
despite adverse social, occupational, or health
consequences
 Khat (Catha edulis)
 A plant grown commonly in the horn of Africa.
 Young buds and tender leaves are chewed to attain stimulation.
 Contain a drug, amphetamine-like stimulant (cathinone) that
affects the brain.
 It acts quickly, within 30 minutes of time, before it is broken down
and removed by the liver.
 When addicted people cannot get the drug, feel depressed, tired and
unable to concentrate.
 Cannabis (marijuana)
 is a plant that contains 400 known chemicals, 60 of which are
the cannabinoids, unique to the plant.
 most potent is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinoid (THC).
 affect the brain of memory, emotion and motivation.
 usually smoked.
 can also be eaten, when it has a much stronger effect because
your liver converts it into a much more powerful drug.
 make you feel great wellbeing, relaxation, happy and euphoric.
 hallucinogenic drug- produce vivid waking dreams, where user
sees or hears things that are not really there, or has a distorted
view of the world.
 illegal in Ethiopia.
 Sense organs
Skin
 largest organs in surface area, weight (area 20 square feet)
 complex organ which carries out important functions.

 Skin:- contains senses (touch, temperature, pressure, pain).

- forms a waterproof layer.

- protects from pathogens.

- protects from damage by UV light.

- excretory organ (sweat).

- control body temperature.

 Components of human skin
Epidermis
 outermost layer made up of dead cells, and provides waterproof barrier.
 Keratinocytes, melanocytes and langerhans cells are some of its cells.
 Keratinocytes- produce protein keratin, main component of epidermis.
 Keratin:- makes up hair, nails, and surface of skin.
- forms rigidity of your skin and helps barrier protection.
 Melanocytes- produce skin pigment, known as melanin.
 Langerhans cells- prevent things from getting into your skin.
Dermis
 beneath epidermis, middle layer
 contains connective tissue, hair follicle, blood vessel, sensory receptor, sweat

glands and sebaceous (oil) glands.

 Con’d
 involved in temperature control and sense of touch.
 there are collagen and elastin proteins, offer support and elasticity.
 Collagen is most plentiful protein in the skin, 75-80% of skin.
 Collagen and elastin are responsible for warding off wrinkles & fine
lines
 involved in homeostasis of skin.
Hypodermis

 deeper subcutaneous tissue

 made of fat and connective tissue.
 lower layer, acts as energy store,
insulation layer, and protecting heat loss.
 Tongue
 muscular organ in the mouth.
 covered with moist, pink tissue called mucosa.
 tiny bumps called papillae give rough texture.
 anchored to mouth by webs of tough tissue and mucosa.
 the front of the tongue is called frenum.
 anchored into the hyoid bone.
 vital for chewing, swallowing, and speech.
 receptors are sensitive to solutions of chemicals.
 There are five taste sensations are sweet, sour, bitter, salt and
umami (a very savoury flavour found in foods such as meat,
cheese, broth and mushroom).
 Nose
o Sense organ of smell (olfaction).
o olfactory receptors identify food, mate, predator, odor and warning.
e.g. spoiled food, fire or chemical dangers.
o Its hairs prevent large particles from entering the lungs.
Anatomy and Physiology
 nasal passages allow warm and filter air.
 nasal concha or turbinate bone is a long, narrow and curled bone
shelf that protrudes into the breathing passage of nose.
 turbinates divide nasal airway into four groove like air passages,
and are responsible for forcing inhaled air to flow in a steady,
regular pattern.
 Con’d
How do you smell?
o receptor cells of olfactory epithelium detect & recognize smell.

o air passes through nasal cavity through a thick layer of

mucus to the olfactory bulb.
o olfactory bulb is situated in the forebrain.
o cells send signals to the brain via olfactory nerve.
o brain interprets those molecules.
o to taste and smell, chemicals must go into solution.
o smell receptors detect vapors from distant.
o smell receptors are much more sensitive than taste.
 Group discussion

Why you cannot ‘taste’ foods well when catch a

common cold?
 Eye
 sensory organ of vision.
 located in eye orbit, a round, bony hollow formed by
different bones of skull.
 orbit and fat cushion protect the eyeball.
External structures of eye
Eyebrows:- protect eyes, shade eyes from direct sunlight.

Fig. External
structure of eye
 Con’d
Eyelids (upper and lower):
- two movable structures composed of two muscles: striated and smooth.
- protect from foreign bodies and limit amount of light entering.
- distribute tears that lubricate the eye.
- join at two points: lateral (outer) canthus and medial (inner) canthus.
- medial canthus contains puncta, two small openings that allow drainage of tears
into lacrimal system and caruncle, small, fleshy mass that contains sebaceous gland
- white space between open eyelids is called palpebral fissure.
- when closed, eyelids should touch.
- when open, upper lid position should be b/n upper margin of iris and upper margin
of pupil.
Eyelashes: projections of hair curving outward, filter dust.
 Con’d
Conjunctiva:

- thin, transparent, continuous membrane.

- divided into two portions: palpebral and bulbar portion.

palpebral conjunctiva lines the inside of eyelids

bulbar conjunctiva covers most of anterior eye.

- allows for inspection of underlying tissue and protect the eye.

Lacrimal apparatus:

- consists of glands and ducts that serve to lubricate the eye.

- located in upper outer corner of orbital cavity, produces tear.

 Con’d
Extra-ocular muscles:
- six muscles attached to outer surface of each eyeball.
- control six different directions of eye movement.
- four rectus muscles for straight movement, and two
oblique muscles for diagonal movement.
 Con’d
Cornea:
- transparent, front part, covers pupil and iris.
- refract light along with lens.
- permits entrance of light.
- well supplied with nerve endings, making it responsive
Iris:- pigmented, colored portion, visible externally.
- control the diameter of pupil according to light.
Pupil:- small aperture in the center of Iris.
- allows light to enter.
 Internal structure of the eye

 eyeball is composed of three separate coats or layers.

 external layer consists of sclera and cornea.
Sclera:
 dense, protective, white covering, supports internal structures.
 continuous interiorly with cornea (“window of the eye”).
 Con’d
Lens:
 biconvex, transparent, encapsulated structure posterior to iris.
 refract (bend) light rays onto the retina
 bulges to focus on close object and flattens to focus far object.
 Suspensory ligaments attached to ciliary muscles support lens.
Choroid layer:
 contains vascularity necessary to provide nourishment.
 prevents light from reflecting internally.
 continuous with ciliary body and iris.
Pupil: opening in the center of iris.
Iris:
 colored part of eye
 made up of muscles that contract or relax to control the pupil size
and amount of light reaching the retina.
 circular muscles run around it, whereas radial muscles run across it.
 Con’d
When light is dim:
- radial muscles contract
- circular muscles relax
- pupil dilates
- lots of light can get in and enable object being viewed.
When light is bright:

- radial muscles relax

- circular muscles contract

- pupil constricts.

- reduces the amount of light goes into the eye.

 Con’d
Retina:- innermost layer, extends to ciliary body anteriorly.
- where image formed.
- receives visual stimuli and sends it to the brain.
- consists nerve cells, including rods and cones
(photoreceptors).
Rods: light sensitive, regulate black and white

visions, & function in dim light

Cones: function in bright light, sensitive to color.

 When image produced, light-sensitive cells are stimulated and send
impulse to brain along affector neuron in optic nerve
 Brain interprets the information.
 Con’d
Blind spot (optic disc):
- cream-colored, circular area located on retina.
- where optic nerve enters and leaves the eyeball.
- no retina (no light sensitive cells).
Fovea centralis:
- retinal depression.
- located adjacent to optic disc (blind spot).
- surrounded by macula, appears darker.
- responsible for sharp, detail and color vision.
- highly concentrated with cones.
 Con’d
 Eyeball contains several chambers that serve to maintain
structure, protect injury, and transmit light rays.

Anterior chamber: located between cornea and iris.

Posterior chamber: area between iris and lens.

Aqueous humour:- clear liquid produced by ciliary body.

- helps to cleanse and nourish cornea and lens.

- maintain intraocular pressure.

Vitreous chamber:- located behind lens to the retina.

- largest of chambers filled with clear & gelatinous humour

 Ear
Structure, function, and defects of ear
 organs for hearing; concerned with balance and position.
 divided into three regions: outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.

Outer ear
Pinna (auricle): a flap, trap and funnel sound into the ear.
Ear canal: tube leading from pinna, about 2 cm long.
Eardrum or tympanum: thin membrane at the end of ear canal.
Small hairs: at the entrance of ear canal.
Wax:- produced by cells lining the ear canal.
- traps dust and germs, and lubricates the eardrum.
 Con’d
Middle ear
 cavity filled with air.
 contains three tiny bones: malleus (hammer), incus (anvil) and
stapes (stirrup).
 malleus attached to eardrum and stapes to oval window.
 connected to throat by Eustachian tube- equalize air pressure.
 at its end, there are two openings: oval window and round window.
Inner ear
 cavity filled with a fluid
 consists of two sac-like structures (sacculus and utriculus), three
semicircular canals and a coiled tube (cochlea).
 the floor is lined with sensory cells linked to affector neurons.
 nerve fibers join to form auditory nerve which leads to the brain.
 Con’d

Fig Human ear

 Con’d
Mechanism of hearing
• pinna collects sound waves and directs to eardrum
• when sound waves hit eardrum, it vibrates.
• amplified vibrations transmitted through ear ossicles to oval
window.
• ossicles also amplify vibrations.
• stapes cause hair-like sensory cells to move.
• movements cause production of nerve impulses that are
transmitted to brain.
 Con’d
• human ear is sensitive to vibrations ranging from low
note of 20 vibrations per second, to high note of 30 000
vibrations per second.

• High notes are detected in the first part of cochlea and

low notes are recorded in the last part of cochlea.

Fig. Cross section

of a cochlea
 Con’d
Semicircular canals: Sense of balance and movement
• Concerned with detection of motion.
• Are at right angles to each other, so sensitive to movement in a
different plane.
• Its swellings (ampullae) contain sensory cells attached to sensory
nerve endings.
• Sensory cells have hairs enclosed in jelly substance called cupula.
• Whenever body or head moves, fluid move.
• Moving fluid causes cupula to tilt, pressing hairs of sensory cells.
• Pressing creates nerve impulses in the sensory nerve endings.
• Nerve impulses are transmitted to the brain.
 Con’d
• One canal responds to nodding, one to shaking and one to tilting.
• Fast spinning followed by instant interruption causes dizziness
because fluid keeps on moving after spinning has stopped.
• Sacculus and utriculus are concerned with balance and posture.
They contain sensory cells in a jelly like substance containing tiny
particle of chalk called otoliths.

Fig. Balance organs

of the ear
 Endocrine system
 collection of cells, tissues, and organs.
 has two components: glands and hormones.
Endocrine gland:- structure consists of cells that produce hormones.
- ductless
Hormone
 a regulatory chemical messenger.
 carried by blood to the target cells.
 interacts with nervous system to coordinate and integrate activities.
 most only affect certain tissues or organs, picked up from blood by
receptors in the cell membranes.
 effects are slower and longer lasting than nervous control.
 Con’d
Exocrine glands:- glands with duct or tube.
- sweat glands, salivary and pancreatic glands, sebaceous,
and mammary glands
 Major endocrine glands
Hypothalamus
 connects nervous system to endocrine system.
 receives and processes signals from other
brain regions & translates to hormones.
 hormones flow to pituitary gland, by infundibulum.

 some hormones are stored in the pituitary for later release;

others spur it to secrete its own hormones.
 hormones are released by pituitary gland whereas
hypothalamus controls other endocrine glands and regulate all
the major internal functions.
 Con’d
Pituitary gland
 found in the brain and size of a pea
 controller of endocrine orchestra (master gland).
 Because of its position in the brain, involved in co-ordination
between nervous and hormonal systems.
 divided into anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and posterior lobe
(neurohypophysis).
 Anterior lobe is about 3 times larger than posterior lobe.
A. Anterior pituitary gland

• makes peptide hormones whose secretion is regulated by

hypothalamus.
• hypothalamic hormones encourage secretion of anterior
pituitary hormones.
 Con’d
• hypothalamus also makes inhibiting hormones that slow
secretion of anterior pituitary hormones.

• Secret six major peptide hormones plus other hormones.

Growth hormone (GH):
 promotes growth by affecting protein formation, cell
multiplication, and cell differentiation.
 quantity is greatest during childhood and adolescence.
 too little GH secretion, pituitary dwarfism
 too much GH secretion, gigantism, often promoting
illness called diabetes mellitus.
 On occasion, GH is overproduced in the adult acromegaly results.
 Con’d
Adrenocorticotropin (corticotropin):
 controls adrenocortical hormones, affect metabolism of glucose,
proteins, and fats.
 Signal adrenal cortex to produce cortisol for long term stress management.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (thyrotropin):

 controls secretion rate of thyroxine and triiodothyronine by thyroid
gland, and these control rates of most intracellular reactions.
Prolactin:
 stimulates milk production.
Gonadotropic hormones: follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH)
 control growth of ovaries and testes, and reproductive activities.
 Con’d

Fig. Hormones secreted by anterior pituitary

 Con’d
B. Posterior pituitary gland
• stores and releases hormones produced by hypothalamus.
• Two hormones of posterior pituitary gland are:
Antidiuretic hormone (vasopression):
• control concentration of water.
Oxytocin:
• express milk from glands of
breast to nipples during suckling.
• helps delivery of baby gestation.
 Con’d

Table. Hormones of the posterior pituitary gland

 Thyroid gland
 small, butterfly-shaped gland located inferior to larynx and
attached to trachea.
 divided into two lateral lobes.
 utilize iodine and synthesize thyroglobulin (TGB).
 Upon stimulation of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), TGB
is converted into two hormones: Triiodothyronine (T3) and
Thyroxine (T4) to promote metabolism.
 Hypo secretion causes hypothyroidism (goiter, cretinism and
myxedema)
 Hyper secretion causes hyperthyroidism that result in Graves’
disease.
 Also secretes Calcitonin to lower blood calcium and phosphate
levels and regulate digestive hormones.
 Hypo secretion and hyper secretion would affect normal
balances of calcium and phosphate
 Malfunction of thyroid gland leads to specific disorders
o Extreme hypothyroidism results in low metabolic rate and lead to
cretinism (retarded mental and physical development).
o Hypothyroidism can be treated with thyroid hormones.
o An adult who feels like sleeping all time, has little energy, and is
mentally slow or confused may be suffering from hypothyroidism.
o Without iodine, thyroid gland getting bigger- goiter.
o Goiter is prevented through addition of iodine to table salt.

Thyroid gland Woman with

goiter
 Parathyroid glands
 4 oval-shaped glands in posterior (back) of thyroid gland
 each gland is about size of rice.
 release parathyroid hormone, controls blood calcium level.
 Hypo secretion causes tetany, and hyper secretion causes
osteitis fibrosa cystica.
 Adrenal gland
• known as suprarenal glands.
• small, triangular-shaped located on the top of kidneys.
• composed of two parts- cortex and medulla
A. Adrenal Cortex:
- outer portion of adrenal gland
- attached to superior surface of kidney.
- divided into 3 regions, outside to inside:
Zona glomerulosa,
Zona fasciculate and
Zona reticularis.
- crucial for normal homeostasis.
 Con’d
B. Adrenal Medulla:
- inner portion of adrenal gland.
- made of modified nerve tissue that is under direct regulation
of sympathetic nerves of autonomic nervous system.
- Contains glandular cells called chromaffin cells which secrete
2 hormones- Epinephrine (adrenaline) and Norepinephrine
(noradrenaline).
Adrenaline
 produced by adrenal glands.
 hormone of ‘fight or flight’- prepares your body for action.
 secreted when stressed, angry, excited or frightened.
 Con’d
Hormone Functions Regulation of secretions

Norepinephrine Causes vasoconstriction in skin, viscera, and skeletal muscles

Epinephrine/ • Increases heart rate and force of contraction Sympathetic impulses from
• Dilates bronchioles
Adrenalin the hypothalamus in stress
• Decreases peristalsis
situations
• Increases conversion of glycogen to glucose
• Causes vasodilation in skeletal muscles
• Causes vasoconstriction in skin and viscera
• Increases use of fats for energy
• Increases the rate of cell respiration
Aldosterone Increases reabsorption of Na by kidneys to blood Low blood Na+ level
• Increases excretion of K by kidneys in urine Low blood volume or blood
pressure High blood K
Glucocorticoid The glucocorticoid hormones have several effects: ACTH (anterior pituitary)
• they influence the metabolism of most body cells;
hormones (cortisol during physiological stress
• they promote glycogen storage in the liver;
(hydrocortisone), • during fasting they stimulate the generation of glucose;
• they increase blood glucose levels;
cortisone and
• they are involved in providing resistance to stressors;
corticosterone) • they decrease the permeability of vascular endothelium;
• they promote the repair of damaged tissues by promoting the
breakdown of stored protein to create amino acids;
• they suppress the immune system;
• they suppress inflammatory processes.
 Pancreas
 small pink organ found below stomach.
 both exocrine and endocrine.
 In its exocrine aspect, 99% of its mass is composed of cells
called acini, secrete digestive enzymes into small intestine.
 In its endocrine aspect, 1% of its mass is little groups of cells
called islets of langerhans (or pancreatic islets) secrete hormones
to regulate blood glucose.
 Alpha cells (α cells) secrete glucagon to raise blood glucose
 Beta cells (β cells) secrete insulin to lower blood glucose level.
 Con’d
 Hypo secretion causes diabetes mellitus and hyper secretion
causes hyperinsulinism.
 Delta cells (δ cells) secrete somatostatin or growth hormone
inhibiting hormone (GHIH), regulate carbohydrate metabolism
by inhibiting glucagons.
 Con’d
A. Insulin
• reduce blood glucose levels by:
A. convert glucose to glycogen and store in liver and muscle.
B. increase rate of glucose oxidation.
C. increase rate of conversion of glucose into fat.
D. regulate the rate amino acids are catabolized into water and CO2.
• Types of diabetes
Type 1 diabetes:

 pancreas can not make insulin, due to autoimmunity that targets

beta cells.

 Antibodies to beta cells have been found in pancrease.

 hereditary factors may also play a role.

 Con’d
Type II diabetes:
 due to insulin resistance, target cells do not respond to insulin.
 result due to obesity, over-eating and lack of exercise.
 insulin hypo responsiveness can be corrected by reducing caloric
intake and exercise since it will increase number of insulin
receptors.

B. Glucagon
• Raises blood glucose level by:
- stimulate breakdown of glycogen.
- activates hepatic gluconeogenesis (creation of glucose
from substrates such as amino acids)
- enhance triglyceride breakdown– providing fatty acid
fuel for cells, and conserving glucose
 Con’d

Fig. Regulation of blood glucose level.

 Gonads (ovary and testis)
Gonads:- testes in boys and ovaries in girls
- endocrine glands which produce sex hormones.
- become active at puberty.
 The role of ovaries
 Two walnut-sized organs found in the lower abdomen.
 Produce eggs and hormones.
 Girls often go into puberty slightly earlier than boys.
 Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) from brain stimulates ovaries
to start producing hormones.
 Produce steroids estrogen and progesterone.
Estrogen
• secreted by follicle cells of ovary;
• secretion is stimulated by FSH from the anterior pituitary gland.
• promotes maturation of ovum and stimulates growth of blood
vessels in endometrium (lining) of uterus.
 Con’d
• develop secondary sexual characteristics.
• include growth of duct system of mammary glands, growth of
uterus, and deposition of fat in hips and thighs.
Progesterone
• After ovum releases, follicle becomes corpus luteum and
begins to secrete progesterone.
• promotes storage of glycogen and further growth of blood
vessels in endometrium.
• mammary glands also develop under the influence of
progesterone.
 The role of testis
• Male sex organ, contains interstitial cells (leydig’s cells)

• Two people do not experience puberty exactly same way

• Pituitary gland in the brain produce more FSH.

• This stimulates producing male sex hormone testosterone

• Rising levels of testosterone develop secondary sexual

characteristics.
Con’d
 Pineal gland
• Pinecone shaped endocrine gland located deep the cerebrum.

• secrets melatonin to regulate circadian rhythms.

• keep track of day or night cycles,

sleep/wake rhythm,

menstrual and

ovarian cycles.
 Con’d
Circadian Rhythms
• Controlled by melatonin secretion by pineal gland of brain.
 body’s physiological responses to 24 hour day-night cycle
 driven by internal (endogenous) circadian clock, although can be
modulated by external factors
 Melatonin secretion is suppressed by bright light (principally blue
wavelengths) and hence levels increase during night
• During sleep, necessary physiological changes occur in body
temperature, brain wave activity and hormonal production
• Melatonin levels naturally decrease with age, leading to changes in
sleeping patterns in the elderly.
Con’d
 Thymus gland
• A diminishing gland (over time) located between lungs.

• Secretes a group of hormones, such as thymosin, to affect

production & maturation of lymphocytes in body defense.

 Homeostasis in the human body
Human kidney

• A pair of bean-shaped organs above the waist.

• Functions: producing hormones, absorbing minerals, and filtering

blood and producing urine.

• Has three regions: outer cortex, medulla in the middle, and renal
pelvis, expanded end of ureter.

• Renal cortex contains nephrons (microscopic tubules), functional

unit of kidney.

• Renal pelvis collects urine and leads to ureter.

• Ureters are urine-bearing tubes that empty into urinary bladder.

 Con’d
• Blood flows into kidney along
renal artery.
• Blood is filtered; fluid containing
water, salt, urea, glucose and other
forced out into kidney tubules.
• Everything the body needs (sugar
and mineral) is reabsorbed.
• Amount of water reabsorbed
depends on the needs of body.
• Urea, excess ions and unwanted
water are released as urine.
 Roles of different areas of a single kidney tubule in
the production of urine
Bowman’s capsule:
 site of ultrafiltration (filtration on a very small scale).
 blood vessel feeding capsule is wider than leaving, blood is under pressure.
 blood cells and large blood proteins cannot leave the blood vessels.
 water, salt, glucose, urea and other forced out into the start of tubule.
Glomerulus:

 knot of blood vessels in Bowman’s capsule where pressure builds

 volume of blood leaving glomerulus is about 15% less than coming.

First coiled (convoluted) tubule:

 glomerular filtrate is liquid which enters this first tubule.

 where much of reabsorption takes place.

 All glucose taken into blood along with 67% of sodium ions and 80% of water.
 has many microvilli to increase the surface area for absorption.
 Con’d
Loop of Henlé: where urine is concentrated and more water is conserved.

Second coiled (convoluted) tubule:

 where main water balancing is done.

 If body is short of water, more is reabsorbed under the influence of ADH (Diuresis means
passing urine, so anti-diuresis means preventing or reducing urine flow.)

 ammonium and some drugs secreted from the blood into this tubule to get rid of them.

 all salt which is needed reabsorbed, leaving the excess with urea.

Collecting duct:

 where liquid (essentially urine) is collected.

 contains about 1% of the original water, with no glucose.

 level of salt in urine depend on amount of salt in your diet and water content of urine.

 urea (about 60 times more) in urine than in blood.

 if needed reabsorbed again under the influence of ADH.

 Con’d
Bladder:- muscular sac, hold between 600 and 800 cm3 urine

- usually we empty when it contains 150–300 cm3

• If water content of blood is too low special sense organs known as
osmoreceptors in the brain detect this.
• They stimulate pituitary gland to release more ADH into blood.
• This hormone affects second coiled tubules, making them more
permeable so more water is reabsorbed to blood.
• More concentrated urine is formed.
• If water of blood is too high, pituitary gland releases less ADH.
• Kidney reabsorbs less water, and producing dilute urine.
• This osmoregulation is example of negative feedback.
 Con’d
• On average day kidneys produce around 180 l of liquid out of
blood but only about 1.5 l of urine.

• More than 99% of liquid filtered out of blood is returned to it.

Thermoregulation
• Internal/core body temperature, must be stable (37 °C) enzymes to work best.
• Human beings are examples of homeotherms.
Osmoregulation
• Controlling the balance of water and ion.
• We gain water when we drink and eat.
• We lose water when we breathe out, sweat and urine.
• Excess mineral ions are removed by kidneys and lost in urine.
• Balance of water and salts is important because of osmotic impact.
 Con’d
Chemical regulation
• Liver also maintain a constant internal environment.
Liver
 large organ, makes up 5% of body mass.
 Besides hepatic artery and vein it has hepatic
portal vein, brings products of digestion to liver.

 site of many reactions.

 Functions of liver:
1. controls sugar levels .
2. balance fat you eat and cholesterol levels of blood.
3. where protein metabolism takes place.
 Con’d
 breaks down excess amino acids and forms urea.

 amino part removed and converted into ammonia and then urea.

 rest of amino acid used in cellular respiration or converted to fat.

 removing amino group from excess amino acids- deamination.

 breakdown worn-out red blood cells – in particular hemoglobin.

 form bile to emulsify fat

 controls toxins including alcohol.

 control temperature- generates heat from its chemical reactions.

 regulation of tissue oxygenation- respiratory chemoreceptors use

blood pH to measure carbon dioxide levels of bloodstream.
 Con’d
• The main chemoreceptors involved in respiratory feedback are:

[Link] chemoreceptors:

 located on ventrolateral surface of medulla oblongata and detect

changes in pH of spinal fluid.

 can be desensitized over time from chronic hypoxia (oxygen

deficiency) and increased carbon dioxide.

2. Peripheral chemoreceptors:
 include aortic body, detects changes in blood oxygen and carbon
dioxide, but not pH, and carotid body which detects all three.
 do not desensitize, but they have less impact on respiratory rate
compared to central chemoreceptors.
 Con’d
• The need for different levels of respiration varies with the physiologic state of
the organism (e.g., sleep, excitement, exercise).
• The respiratory system must try to maintain constant levels of O2, CO2 and
H+ in the arterial blood which then ensures relatively constant level in the
interstitial fluid.
• For O2, one needs an adequate supply to meet cellular metabolic requirements.
For CO2 and H+, one needs to maintain acid–base status of body's cells.

• Respiratory system provides a rapid, but usually incomplete,

compensation for acid–base disturbances through altered partial
pressure of CO2. (PCO2).
• Changes in the levels of O2, CO2 and H+ in the blood cause
compensatory changes in the level of ventilation.