Understanding Engineering Mathematics (iv) Seosx +sinx) (vy) x?sinx +2xcos.x —2sinx o) Finii- > oi 50 De® 9.3.11 Choice of integration methods Ai) A (i) C Gi) B (iv) B WA wi) B Bi) BC i) AC di) C WC WBC wi BC Cc. @ In? —6x +4) Gi) cosx (iii) x (iv) ; In(2x + 3) 1 32 . x41 (v) ee (vi) > ) (vii), —x cose + 1) + singe +1) 2 inet vii) get gsin2x + 35 sind ix) Fo xme tx (x) Sine — 3) — 4In(x — 2) (xi) qerer-) (xii) sin(e*) (xiii) ~ feos (xiv) Ve Oe FS (xv) Sine? + 2x +2) +2en\ee +) 1 1 2 (xvi) 7g (eos — cos9x) @vit) 5 sin? +1) 9.3.12 The definite integral 1 i 2 ; AG 3) F-1 Gi) FWV2-1) Gv) 2n3—-3m2_— WY) I 289Applications of Differentiation and Integration In general terms, the usefulness of calculus in elementary engineering maths lies in the application of differentiation as a rate of change or slope of a curve and integration as an area under a curve. These are essentially applications to very useful mathematical methods. There are also specific applications to various disciplines of engineering, such as centroids and moments of inertia in solid mechanics and rms values in electronic engineering. Also, there are examples in statistics. The applications to mathematical methods are the main subject of this chapter. Some engineering and statistics examples are covered under Applications. Prerequisites It will be helpful if you know something about: techniques of differentiation (Chapter 8 <) techniques of integration (Chapter 9 <) imple ideas of limits (230 <) coordinate geometry (Chapter 7 <<) tangent and normal to a curve (230 <<) equation of a line (212 <<) inequalities (97 <<) olving algebraic equations (Chapter 2 <) plotting graphs (91 <) Objectives In this chapter you will find differentiation as a gradient and a rate of change tangent and normal to a curve stationary points and points of inflection curve sketching the definite integral as the area under a curve . . © volume of a solid of revolution 290Understanding Engineering Mathematics Motivation You may need the material of this chapter for: finding and interpreting rates of change such as velocity, acceleration, etc. interpreting solutions of differential equations finding optimal values of various engineering variables sketching the graph of an engineering function finding areas, centroids, etc. evaluating volumes, moments of inertia, etc. evaluating mean and rms values of alternating currents evaluating probability, the mean and standard deviation in statistics 10.1 Review 10.1.1 The derivative as a gradient and rate of change For each of the following functions find: (a) The gradient or slope of the graph of the function at the point specified (b) The rate of change of the function at the point specified @ oy x=1 (ii) y=cosx, 10.1.2 Tangent and normal to a curve Find the equations of the (i) tangent and (ii) the normal to the curve y the point (2, 1). 10.1.3 Stationary points and points of inflection ea Locate and classify any stationary points and points of inflection of the following functions 1 (i) 16x — 3x (i) x4 (iii) xe" (iv) sin x cos x (v) xt 10.1.4 Curve sketching in Cartesian coordinates Sketch the functions given in QU0.1.3, 10.1.5 Applications of integration - area under a curve A. Find the area enclosed between the curve, the x-axis and the limits stated for each of the following cases: @ y=4r41 x B. Find the area enclosed between the curves y —xand y =2x— 291Understanding Engineering Mathematics 10.1.6 Volume of a solid of revolution Find the volume of the solid of revolution formed when the positive area enclosed under the following curve is rotated once about the x-axis. 10.2 Revise 10.2.1 The derivative as a gradient and rate of change dy The derivative, <, of a function y = f(x) is defined by a limiting process precisely to give the gradient or slope of the curve described by the function at a given point x (230 <<). As such it describes the rate of change of the function — the ‘steepness’ of the curve. Thus, at a point where dy/dx is large and positive the curve of the func- tion y = f(x) is is i 's. Other cases are tabulated below, as examples ~ fill in the mis ing entries. dy/dx behaviour of y = f(x) ? y increases slowly as x increases large and negative 2 2 y decreases slowly as x increases It is important to note that the derivative is defined at a point. Differentiation is therefore what is called a local operation. The derivative of a function will only tell us about the behaviour at a single point, and says nothing about the overall or global behaviour of the function, (i) For the function y = x? we have ay ay Ly ax At x = I this has the value 2 and so (a) the gradient at this point is 2, and (b) the rate of change is also 2. dy (ii) For the function y = cos.x the derivative is —sin.x which is equal to zero at x = 7. So in this case the (a) #fidient or slope of the graph is zero at x = 7, as is (b) the rate of change of the function, So, at this point the tangent to the curve is horizontal, its slope being zero, and the rate of change of the function is zero. We know, of course, from the properties of cos x, that this point is a local minimum (see Section 10.2.3) (182 <). 292Understanding Engineering Mathematics 10.2.2 Tangent and normal to a curve ‘The derivative at a point (a, b) on a curve y = f(x) will give us the slope, m, of the tangent to the curve at that point. This tangent is a straight line with gradient m passing through the point (a, b) and therefore has an equation (212 <<) y—b=m(x—a) ‘The normal to the curve y = f(x) at the point (a, b) is the line through (a, b) perpendicular to the tangent — see Figure 10.1. Figure 10.1 Tangent and normal to a curve. In mechanics, the normal is important because it defines the direction of the reaction to a force applied to a smooth surface represented by the curve. If the gradient of y = f(x) 1 at (a, b) ism then the gradient of the normal through (a, b) will be ~—- (214 -€). So the fn equation of the normal is 1 —(x a) m yb ; dy —x—Iwe have 2 = 2x —1. ax So at (2, 1), the gradient is m=2x2—=1=3 ‘The equation of the tangent at (2, 1) is therefore For the curve y = 3(x — 2) ax — The gradient of the normal at (2, 1) is 293Understanding Engineering Mathematics so the equation of the normal is 10.2.3 Stationary points and points of inflection Since the derivative describes rate of change, or the slope, of a curve it can tell us a great deal about the shape of a curve, and the corresponding behaviour of the function. Figure 10.2 shows the range of possibilities one can meet. y Figure 10.2 Stationary points and points of inflection. In all cases we assume that the function is continuous and smooth (the graph has no breaks and no sharp points). At points A, C, E, where dy/d. is zero, y is not actually changing at all as x varies ~ the tangent to the curve is then parallel to the x-axis at such points as shown. These are called stationary points. So, at a stationary point of the function y = f(x) we have B= py =0 dx ‘The value of f(x) at a stationary point is called a stationary value of f(x). Note that we will usually use the “dash” notation for derivatives in the rest of the book ~ it saves space! There are a number of different types of stationary points illustrated in Figure 10. displaying the different possibilities - C is a minimum point, and A is a maximum. E is a stationary point where the tangent crosses the curve ~ this is an example of an important point called a point of inflection. B and D are also points of inflection of a different kind — the tangent crosses the curve, but is not horizontal — see below. The maximum and minimum points are called turning points, since the curve turns at such points and changes direction, As emphasised above, differentiation is a local procedure. So, for example any minimum identified by differentiation is only a local minimum, not necessarily an overall 294Understanding Engineering Mathematics global minimum of the function. Similarly for a maximum. Indeed, for a function such 1 x += the local minimum actually has a higher value than the local maximum as y (> 297). While the graphical representation of the behaviour of functions is very suggestive, we need a means of distinguishing stationary points and points of inflection that depends only on the derivatives of the function in question. The graphical form provides a hint as to how this might work. As an example, consider a minimum point at say x = x9 (see Figure 10.3). Figure 10.3 Behaviour at a minimum. To the left of xo, ie. for x xo, y increases as x increases and so f(x) > 0. And of course at x = xp we have F(x) =f’) = 0. So, near to a minimum point we can summarise the situation as in the table below: x <% X= Xo x > Xo fx) <0 f@=0 | Paso This characterisation no longer relies on the graphical representation — it depends only on the values of the derivative at different points. Rather than use this table as a means of verifying a minimum point, we look at the implications it has for the second derivative of the function. In this case we see that as x passes through xp, (x) is steadily inereasing. That is d (dy\_ dx \dx) =x on the curve y = f(x) is characterised by f(x) >0 So a minimum point fo) =O and f(x) > 0 Similarly, for a maximum point we obtain the table *<%0 x= x0 x= 4X f@>0 | fw=0 | fa<0 295Understanding Engineering Mathematics and so in this case the derivative is decreasing as we increase x through x = xp and thus a maximum point x = xo is characterised by F'%) =0 f"%) <0 Now what happens if f(xy) = 0? Then, it is not clear whether or not the gradient, f"(x), is changing at x = xp and a more careful examination is necessary. An example of one possibility occurs at the point & in Figure 10.2, at which point 0 £0) = fF") This is a particular example of a point of inflection. B and D are other examples, but these are clearly not stationary points ~ the gradient is not zero. In these cases f”(xp) = 0 but f"(xo) #0. So what precisely characterises a point of inflection? Look more closely at the point B in Figure 10.2. To emphasise the point we will bend the curve somewhat near to B, as in 2X as the coordinate of B here. Figure 10.4 Detail of a point of inflection. On either side of B the gradient is negative. However, on the left of B, x <.x9, the curve is below the tangent. We say the curve here is concave down. To the right of B, x > xo, the curve is above the tangent and we say it is eoneaye up. Looking at points D and E we see a similar change: left of D — concave up right of D — concave down left of E - concave down right of E- concave up In general, any point where there is such a change of sense of concavity is called a point of inflection, meaning a change in the direction of bending of the curve. At such a point you will see that it is the rate of change of the gradient that is changing sign. For example: left of B, gradient steepens as x increases ~ curve concave down right of B, gradient decreases as x increases — curve concave up So even though the gradient of f(x) may not be zero at a point of inflection — ite. we may not have a stationary value ~ the rate of change of the gradient, f”(xo), at such a point must be zero. However, note that the condition f”(xp) = 0 does not itself guarantee a point of inflection. The Review Question 10.1.4(v) illustrates this. 296Understanding Engineering Mathematics MEMES @ Gi) For the function f(x) = 16x — 3x3 we have /"(x) = 16-9. Sx) = 16 — 9x7 =0 Solving gives stationary values at.x = +4. To classify these consider the second derivative (x) = —18x. So, for x = 4, f"G) = -24 <0 and we have a maximum. For « = —4 we have and we have a minimum, We also note that f”(x) = 0 at x =0, so there is a possibility of a point of inflection at this point. To investigate this we have to consider how the gradient is changing on either side of x = 0. This is indicated by the sign of /”(x) x<0 f(x) =-I8r>0 x>0 f(x) =-18% <0 So for x <0, f"(x) = (/'())’ is positive and therefore the gradient -f'(«) is increasing as x increases and the curve is concave upwards. For x > 0, f"(x) = (f'(a))' is negative, so the gradient "(x) is decreasing and x increases and the curve is concave downwards. Thus x = 0 is, 4 point where the curve changes from concave up to concave down as x increases — it is a point of inflection. The curve is sketched in Figure 10.7. Note that the complete story about the curve requires quite a careful study of its derivatives. 1 1 For f(x) =x + — we have f(x) = 1 — —. Solving x x f@=al- x gives us stationary values at x = +1. We find f= 3 and so f"Aj=2>0 giving us a minimum at x = 1, while f'(-)=-2<0 giving us a maximum at x = —1 297Understanding Engineering Mathematics 298 iii) iv) (vy) In this case f”(x) is never zero for finite x, so we have no point of inflection, Notice that in this case the local minimum value (2) is greater than the local maximum value (—2), emphasising the local nature of differer tion. The situation is sketched in Figure 10.8. For f(x) = xe" we have f'(x) =e* +.xe* =0 when x =—1, since e* £0. At this stationary point we have fe) = 20! +xe" =e > Oatx= Sox =—1 is a minimum point in this case. Looking for points of inflection we note that "(x)= e*(x +2) = Oat x =—2. For x <—2, f’(x) <0, f"(x) decreases as x increases and the curve is concave down, For x > —2, f”(x) > 0, f"(x) increases as x increases and the curve is concave up. So x = —2 is a point of inflection. The curve is sketched in Figure 10.9. sin 2x. Qn +1) 2 We can write f(x) Then f’(x) So there are turning points where (22) x 4 F(x) = =2sin2x ~2sin((7 *)x) cos 2x ot where 1 is an integer. Further, For n even this is negative, while it is positive for n odd. 2n+1 ‘Thus we have maximum when x =( )n for n even, and minimum when n is odd, Points of inflection can occur when f"(x) = —2s 2x =0, ie, 2x = ma mm where m is an integer, or x = For f(x) =x we have f(x) = 4x3 = 0 when x = 0. So there is a stationary point at x = 0. But f(x) = 12x? = 0 when x =0 So there may be a point of inflection at x = 0. However, we note that for x <0, "(x) > 0, so the curve is concave up, while for x > 0 we again have f(x) > 0, again indicating that the curve is concave up. So the concavity does not change at x = 0 and therefore it is not a point of inflection. In fact, the graph is easy to sketch, and we clearly have a minimum at x = 0 (see Figure 10.11, Review Question 10.1.4(v). This illustrates that the vanishing of the second derivative, while essential for a point of inflection is not a guarantee of one.