LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Lesson 1: Tools of Physical Science

Learning Outcomes
1. Identify the basic units of measurement of the seven
fundamental properties
2. Express quantities given in SI units using metric prefixes
3. Add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers in scientific notation
4. Differentiate accuracy from precision
5. Apply knowledge of significant figures to scientific calculations
6. Use knowledge of manipulating equations to scientific
calculations

Physical Quantity
A physical quantity is a property of a material or system that can be quantified
by measurement. It is defined either by specifying how it is measured or by
stating how it is calculated from other measurements.

Example: Distance and time are defined by specifying methods for

measuring them, such as using a meter stick and a stopwatch. Then,
average speed could be defined by stating that it is calculated as the
total distance traveled divided by time of travel.

It can be expressed as the combination of a numerical value and a unit.

Example: the physical quantity mass can be quantified as n kg, where n

is the numerical value and kg is the unit.

A physical quantity possesses at least two characteristics in common, one is

numerical magnitude and other is the unit in which it is measured.

Units
Measurements of physical quantities are expressed in terms of units, which
are standardized values.

Units - standards used for expressing and comparing measurements

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Example: the length of a race, which is a physical quantity, can be

expressed in units of meters (for sprinters) or kilometers (for distance
runners).

Two Major Systems of Units Used in the World

1. SI units (for the French Système International d’Unités), also known as

the metric system. It is convenient to use because units of different size are
related by powers of 10.

2. English units (also known as the customary or imperial system). English

units were historically used in nations once ruled by the British Empire and
are still widely used in the United States.

English units may also be referred to as the foot–pound–second (fps) system,

as opposed to the centimeter–gram–second (cgs) system.

Virtually every other country in the world (except the United States) now uses
SI units as the standard. The metric system is also the standard system
agreed on by scientists and mathematicians.

The Seven Base Units

Property Unit Symbol

Length meter m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

temperature (absolute) kelvin K

amount of substance mole mol

electric current ampere A

luminous intensity candela cd

Meter (m) - the distance light travels in a vacuum over 1/299792458 of a

second

Second (s) - defined in terms of the frequency of one type of radiation emitted
by a cesium-133 atom

Kilogram (kg) - defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the Planck
constant h to be 6.626 070 15 × 10 -34 when expressed in the unit J s, which is
equal to kg m2 s-1

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Metric Prefixes and Their Symbols

Name Symbol Base 1000 Base 10 Scale

Yotta Y 10008 1024 Septillion

Zetta Z 10007 1021 Sextillion

Exa E 10006 1018 Quintillion

Peta P 10005 1015 Quadrillion

Tera T 10004 1012 Trillion

Giga G 10003 109 Billion

Mega M 10002 106 Million

Kilo k 10001 103 Thousand

Hecto h 10002/3 102 Hundred

Deca da 10001/3 101 Ten

/ 10000 100 One

Deci d 1000-1/3 10-1 Tenth

Centi c 1000-2/3 10-2 Hundredth

Milli m 1000-1 10-3 Thousandt

h

Micro µ 1000-2 10-6 Millionth

Nano n 1000-3 10-9 Billionth

Pico p 1000-4 10-12 Trillionth

Femto f 1000-5 10-15 Quadrilliont

h

Atto a 1000-6 10-18 Quintilliont

h

Zepto z 1000-7 10-21 Sextillionth

Yocto y 1000-8 10-24 Septillionth

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Converting Units
To convert between two different units, quantities are multiplied by conversion
factors.

Conversion factor- is a ratio between two different units of measurement that

is equal to 1.
−9
1 kg 10 m
=1 or =1
1000 g 1 nm

Because conversion factors are equal to 1, multiplying a quantity by a

conversion factor will not change the quantity. The number and the units will
change, but the actual quantity being described is the same.

Conversion factors are also used to switch from one system of units to another,
such as from the British/U.S. system to SI units.

British/U.S. System SI

1 in. 2.54 cm

1 ft 0.305 m

1 mi 1.61 km

1 qt 0.946 L

1 lb 4.448N

You can also use more than one conversion factor in succession to get to the
units you want.

Example: Convert 55 mile per hour (mph or mi/h) to the SI units of meter
per second (m/s). This can be done with a series of 4 conversion factors.

mi 1.61 km 1000 m 1h 1 min

55 x x x x =25 m/ s
h 1 mi 1 km 60 min 60 s

Note that all conversion factors are equal to 1. All units on the left side of this
equation cancel each other out except m in the numerator and s in the
denominator, leaving the desired units of m/s on the right.

Scientific Notation
Scientific notation is a way of writing very large or very small numbers.

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Scientific notation – a method of notation in which numbers have one

nonzero digit to the left of the decimal point, the remaining digits to the
right of the decimal point, and multiplied by a power of ten.

To convert numbers to scientific notation, remember that powers of ten

correspond to moving the decimal point to the left or to the right.

Example: Convert the quantity 375,000 m to scientific notation.

Move the decimal point to the left until there is only one nonzero number
to the left of the decimal point. The number of places you moved to the
left – 5 in this case – is the power of ten to use:

375,000 m = 3.75 x 105 m

If you move the decimal point to the right, the power of ten is negative.

Example: 0.00052 kg = 5.2 x 10-4 kg

When multiplying quantities in scientific notation, you multiply the first part of
the numbers together, and then add the exponents of ten. Remember to
multiply the units, too.

Example: (3.75 x 105 m) (2.0 x 102 m) =

(3.75)(2.0) x 10(5 + 2) m2 = 7.5 x 107 m2

When dividing quantities in scientific notation, you divide the first part of the
numbers, and then subtract the exponents on the powers of ten:

( )
5
3.75 x 10 m/s 3.75 (5−2) 3
Example: 2
= x 10 m/ s=1.5 x 10 m/s
2.5 x 10 m/s 2.5

When adding or subtracting quantities in scientific notation, the quantities must

(1) use the same units (2) have the same powers of ten. If they don’t, you
should convert the numbers so they do. Then add or subtract the first part of
the number, and do nothing to the power of ten.

Example:

(3.75 x 105 m) – (2.0 x 106 cm) =

(3.75 x105 m) – (2.0 x 104 m) =

(3.75 x105 m) - (0.20 x 105 m) = 3.55 x 105 m

Accuracy vs. Precision

Accuracy – is a measure of how close a measurement is to the correct or
accepted value of the quantity being measured.

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Precision – is a measure of how close a series of measurements are to

one another.

Precise measurements are highly reproducible, even if the measurements are

not near the correct value.

Precision is independent of accuracy. That means it is possible to be very

precise but not very accurate, and it is also possible to be accurate without
being precise.

A classic way of demonstrating the difference between precision and accuracy

is with a dartboard. Think of the bulls-eye (center) of a dartboard as the true
value. A dart that hits the bulls-eye is highly accurate, whereas a dart that lands
far away from the bulls-eye displays poor accuracy. The figure below
demonstrates four possible outcomes.

1. The darts have landed far from each other and far from the bulls-eye.
This grouping demonstrates measurements that are neither accurate nor
precise.

2. The darts are close to one another, but far from the bulls-eye. This
grouping demonstrates measurements that are precise, but not
accurate.
In a laboratory situation, high precision with low accuracy often results
from a systematic error. Either the measurer makes the same mistake
repeatedly or the measuring tool is somehow flawed. A poorly calibrated
balance may give the same mass reading every time, but it will be far
from the true mass of the object.

3. The darts are not grouped very near to each other, but are generally
centered about the bulls-eye. This demonstrates poor precision, but
fairly high accuracy.
This situation is not desirable in a lab situation because the "high"
accuracy may simply be random chance and not a true indicator of good
measuring skill.

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4. The darts are grouped together and have hit the bulls-eye. This
demonstrates high precision and high accuracy.
The best quality scientific observations are both accurate and precise.

Significant Figures
The precision of a physical quantity is reflected in the number of significant
figures.

Significant figures – the digits in a physical quantity that are known with
certainty, plus one uncertain digit.

Rules for Working with Significant Figures:

1. Leading zeros are never significant.

Imbedded zeros are always significant.
Trailing zeros are significant only if the decimal point is specified.
Hint: Change the number to scientific notation. It is easier to see.

Example Number of Scientific Notation

Significant
Figures
0.00682 3 6.82 x 10-3 Leading zeros are not significant.
1.072 4 1.072 (x 100) Imbedded zeros are always
significant.
300 1 3 x 102 Trailing zeros are significant only if
the decimal point is specified.
300. 3 3.00 x 102
300.0 4 3.000 x 102

2. Addition or Subtraction:
The last digit retained is set by the first doubtful digit.

Even though your calculator gives you the

Additio answer 8.0372, you must round off to 8.04.
n Your answer must only contain 1 doubtful
number. Note that the doubtful digits are
underlined

Subtractio Subtraction is interesting when

n concerned with significant figures. Even
though both numbers involved in the
subtraction have 5 significant figures, the
answer only has 3 significant figures
when rounded correctly. Remember, the
answer must only have 1 doubtful digit.

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*In addition and subtraction, the final answer should contain the same
number of decimal places as the original number with the fewest number
of decimal places.

3. Multiplication or Division:
The answer contains no more significant figures than the least accurately
known number.

The answer must be rounded off to 2

Multiplication significant figures, since 1.6 only has 2
significant figures.

The answer must be rounded off to 3

Division significant figures, since 45.2 has only 3
significant figures.

Notes on Rounding

 When rounding off numbers to a certain number of significant figures, do

so to the nearest value.

Example: Round to 3 significant figures: 2.3467 x 104

Answer: 2.35 x 104
Example: Round to 2 significant figures: 1.612 x 103
Answer: 1.6 x 103
 What happens if there is a 5? There is an arbitrary rule:
If the number before the 5 is odd, round up.
If the number before the 5 is even, let it be.
The justification for this is that in the course of a series of many
calculations, any rounding errors will be averaged out.

Example: Round to 2 significant figures: 2.35 x 102

Answer: 2.4 x 102
Example: Round to 2 significant figures: 2.45 x 102
Answer: 2.4 x 102

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Of course, if we round to 2 significant figures: 2.451 x 10 2, the answer is

definitely 2.5 x 102 since 2.451 x 102 is closer to 2.5 x 102 than 2.4 x 102.

Working with Equations

Many of the fundamental principles in physical science are expressed
mathematically in the form of equations. As in any equations, the terms on the
left side of the scientific equation are equal to the terms on the right side.
However, unlike purely mathematical equations, which may involve equalities
between pure numbers, equations used in physical science show how different
physical quantities are related to one another.

You can manipulate the terms in scientific equation using algebra. This is
helpful when you need to isolate one quantity in particular, such as when it is
unknown variable in a problem.

Example:

The following equation is a mathematical expression of the physical principle

known as Newton’s second law:

Net force = mass x acceleration

Fnet = ma

Using algebra, you can come up with two different, but equivalent, forms of this
equation:

net force F net

1) acceleration= a=
mass m

net force F net

2) mass= m=
acceleration a

When you are using equations to solve a problem in physical science, it is

usually best to rearrange the equations to isolate the unknown variable on the
left side before you plug in the known values for the other variables.

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Select the correct answer among the choices given.

1. A nanosecond is:
a. 109 s b. 10−9 s c. 10−10 s d. 10−10 s e. 10−12
2. Which of the following is closest to a yard in length?
a. 0.01m b. 0.1m c. 1m d. 100m e. 1000m
3. The SI base unit for mass is:
a. gram b. pound c. kilogram d. ounce e. kilopound
4. A gram is:
a. 10−6 kg b. 10−3 kg c. 1 kg d. 103 kg e. 106 kg
5. Which of the following weighs about a pound?
a. 0.05 kg b. 0.5 kg c. 5 kg d. 50 kg e. 500 kg
6. (5.0 × 104) × (3.0 × 106) =
a. 1.5 × 109 b. 1.5 × 1010 c. 1.5 × 1011 d. 1.5 × 1012 e. 1.5 × 1013
7. (5.0 × 104) × (3.0 × 10−6) =
a. 1.5 × 10−3 b. 1.5 × 10−1 c. 1.5 × 101 d. 1.5 × 103 e. 1.5 × 105
8. 5.0 × 105 + 3.0 × 106 =
a. 8.0 × 105 b. 8.0 × 106 c. 5.3 × 105 d. 3.5 × 105 e. 3.5 × 106
9. (7.0 × 106) / (2.0 × 10−6) =
a. 3.5 × 10−12 b. 3.5 × 10−6 c. 3.5 d. 3.5 × 106 e. 3.5 × 1012
10. The number of significant figures in 0.00150 is:
a. 2 b. 3 c. 4 d. 5 e. 6
11. The number of significant figures in 15.0 is:
a. 1 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4 e. 5
12. 3.2 × 2.7 =
a. 9 b. 8 c. 8.6 d. 8.64 e. 8.640
13. 1.513 + 27.3 =
a. 29 b. 28.8 c. 28.9 d. 28.81 e. 28.813
14. Which one of the following is an SI base unit?
a. gram b. slug c. Newton d. centimeter e. kilogram

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15. A particle has a mass of one milligram. Which one of the following
statements indicates the correct mass of the particle in grams?
a. The particle has a mass of 1 × 106 grams.
b. The particle has a mass of 1 × 103 grams.
c. The particle has a mass of 1 × 10–1 grams.
d. The particle has a mass of 1 × 10–3 grams.
e. The particle has a mass of 1 × 10–6 grams.
16. Which one of the following is the longest length?
a. 100 meters c. 104 millimeters e. 107 nanometers
b. 102 centimeters d. 105 micrometers
17. In the sport of platform diving, a platform is set at a height of 7.3 m above
the surface of the water. What is the height, expressed in feet, of the
platform?
a. 13 feet b. 18 feet c. 24 feet d. 33 feet e. 97 feet
1 kilogram
18. The ratio is
1milligram
a 102. b. 103. c. 106. d. 10–3. e. 10–6.
19. Which one of the following pairs of units may not be added together, even
after the appropriate unit conversions have been made?
a. grams and milligrams
b. slugs and kilograms
c. miles and kilometers
d. centimeters and yards
e. kilograms and kilometres
20. Which one of the following choices is equivalent to 24.8 m?
a. 2.48 X101 m c. 24.8 X10–1 m e. 2.48 X100 m
b. 2.48 X102 m d. 24.8 X10–2 m
21. In the sport of horseshoe pitching, two stakes are 40.0 feet apart. What is
the distance in meters between the two stakes?
a. 24.4 m b. 4.80 m c. 18.3 m d. 12.2 m e. 15.7 m
22. A computer disk is 3.5 inches on a side. What is this dimension in
centimeters?
a. 8.9 cm b. 12.3 cm c. 1.38 cm d. 3.5 cm
23. A beaker in the laboratory has a volume of 250 mL. What is the volume of
the beaker in liters?
a. 0.250 L b. 250,000 L c. 2.00 L d. 2.50 L
24. A piece of meat has a mass of 1.55 kg. What is the mass of this meat in
grams?
a. 1550 g b. 0.155 g c. 15.5 g d. 155 g
25. A piece of meat has a mass of 1.35 kg. What is the mass of this meat in
pounds? (1.00 pound is equivalent to 454 g.)
a. 2.70 lb b. 0.340 lb c. 2.97 lb d. 0.00297 lb
26. The number of significant figures in the number 0.002354 is

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a. 6 b. 3 c. 2 d. 4
27. The number of significant figures in the number 1.03 x 10-3 is
a. 1 b. 3 c. 2 d. 4
28. If you solve the expression (2.34 + 0.567 + 63.2 =?), the answer is
a. 66.107 b. 66.10 c. 66.1 d. 66
29. What is the answer to the following expression in the correct number of
significant figures? (0.0821) • (0.023) • (298) / 1.5
a. 0.38 b. 0.4 c. 0.375 d. 0.37514227
30. If you express the number 0.000568 in scientific notation with two
significant figures it would be
a. 5.7 x 10-3 b. 5.68 x 10-4 c. 5.7 x 104 d. 5.7 x 10-4
31. What are the three fundamental quantities?
a. mass, volume, temperature
b. mass, time, length
c. volume, time, temperature
d. time, length, temperature
e. volume, mass, time
32. Which of the following quantities is not one of the fundamental quantities?
a. length b. speed c. time d. mass
33. Which of the following numbers is proper scientific notation for 25,300?
a. 2.53 x 104 b. 25.3 x 103 c. 2.53 x 103 d. 0.253 x 105
34. The number 7.4 x 105 is equivalent to which of the following?
a. 7.4 b. 740 c. 7,400 d. 740,000
35. How may meters in 1 kilometer?
a. 1 b. 10 c. 100 d. 1000
36. Which one of the following most closely represents the length of 1 meter?
a. length of a football field c. height of a doorknob
b. length of a bus d. width of your hand
37. How many significant digits are in 8005 m?
a. 6 b. 4 c. 12 d. 7
38. How many milligrams are in one kilogram?
a. 1,000,000 b. 10 c. 1,000 d. 10,000
39. Using scientific notation, decimal places are expressed as powers of
a. 6 b. 4 c. 12 d. 10
40. How many significant digits are in 0.003068cm?
a. 4 b. 8 c. 7 d. 1
8
41. How many significant digits are in 1.008x10 m?
a. 6 b. 4 c. 12 d. 7
42. Multiplying 36.0 m by 4 m results with an answer of:
a. 100 m2 b. 144 m2 c. 140 m2 d. 144.0 m2
43. 29 cm + 3.2 cm =
a. 32.2 cm b. 32 cm c. 30 cm d. 3 cm
44. Simplify 5(2.7 × 10–4). Write the answer using scientific notation.

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a. 13.5 × 10–2 b.1.35 × 10–3 c. 13.5 × 10–4 d. 1.35 × 10–5

45. Which list has the numbers in order from least to greatest?
a. 9.4 × 102, 4.9 × 102, 9.4 × 103
b. 9.4 × 103, 4.9 × 102, 9.4 × 102
c. 4.9 × 102, 9.4 × 102, 9.4 × 103
d. 4.9 × 102, 9.4 × 103, 9.4 × 102
46. What is 0.006 70 m in correct scientific notation?
a. 6.70 x 10-3 m c. 6.70 x 103 m e. none of the above
-3 3
b. 6.70 x 10 m d. 6.70 x 10 m
7
47. What is 1.59 x 10 g in standard notation?
a. 0.000 000 159 g c. 15 900 000 g e. 1 590 000 000g
b.1 590 000 000 g d. 0.000 000 159 g
48. What is 350 000 mol in correct scientific notation?
a. 3.5 x 10 -5 mol c. 3.5 x 104 mol e. none of the above
-4 5
b. 3.5 x 10 mol d. 3.5 x 10 mol
49. In correct scientific notation, the number ten thousand would be...
a. 1 x 103 b. 1 x 104 c. 1 x 105 d. 1 x 10 5 e. 1 x 10-4
50. In correct scientific notation, the number 1/1000 would be...
a. 1 x 104 b. 1 x 103 c. 1 x 10-4 d. 1 x 10-2 e. 1 x 10-3

Test II. Fill in what is missing in the table. Write your answer at the back part of
your answer sheet.

Seven Basic Quantities and Units

Quantity Unit Symbol
Length 1. 2.
Mass 3. 4.
5. Second s
Electric current 6. A
7. Kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candela 8.
Amount of substance 9. 10.

Power Prefix Symb

ol
11.___ femto f
_
10-12 12.___ p
10-9 nano 13.__
__
14.___ micro µ
_

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

10-3 15.___ m
_
16.___ centi c
__
103 17.___ k
__
106 18.___ M
__
Lesson 2: VECTORS

Learning Outcomes
1. Differentiate scalar from vector quantities
2. Perform addition of vectors
3. Rewrite a vector in a component form
4. Calculate magnitude and directions of vectors

Scalar
A scalar is any quantity in physics that has only magnitude.
Magnitude – A numerical value with units.

Scalar Example Magnitude

Speed 20 m/s
Distance 10 m
Age 15 years
Heat 1000 calories

The familiar rules of arithmetic addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division

are used to mathematically manipulate scalars.

Vector
A vector is any quantity in physics that has both magnitude and direction.

Vector Magnitude & Direction

Velocity 20 m/s, N
Acceleration 10 m/s/s, E

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Force 5 N, West

A vector is usually represented by either a letter with an arrow above the letter:

Or a bold-face letter:
A, B, a, b

Graphical Representation of Vector

Vectors can be represented graphically using arrows. The length of the arrow
corresponds to the magnitude of the vector, and the direction of the arrow is the
direction of the vector.
Direction
Magnitude

An appropriate scale must be used when drawing the length of the arrow.

Vector addition is visualized most easily using a graphical technique.

They can be added by placing the arrows head to tail. The arrow that extends
from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last vector is called the
resultant (R). It indicates both magnitude and direction of the vector sum.
A B

Resultant (R)
The resultant can be written as a mathematical equation: R = A + B
Vectors don’t always have to be in a straight line but may be oriented at angles
at each other.

or R
B R B

A
A
Since we are dealing with vectors we cannot simply add, using simple
arithmetic, the magnitudes of A and B to find R. There are a variety of methods
for determining the magnitude and direction of the result of adding two or more
vectors. The two methods that will be discussed in this lesson and used
throughout the entire unit are: the graphical method (the head-to-tail method
using a scaled vector diagram) and the component method (which uses
Pythagorean Theorem and trigonometric functions).

Graphical Addition of Vectors

If 2 similar vectors point in the SAME direction, add them.

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Example: A man walks 54.5 meters east, then another 30 meters east.
Calculate his displacement relative to where he started?

To add to or more vectors graphically, place the vector head to tail one at a
time, as illustrated in the figure below.
A B

The magnitudes and direction of the vectors must not be changed as they
moved about. The resultant vector R goes from the tail of the first vector to the
head of the last vector and equals the sum these vectors (R = A + B + C).
B
A
C
R

The order in which we add the vectors makes no difference

(For example, A + B + C = C + B + A).
R
C
A
B
Usually, the graphical technique for adding vectors is used as rough check on
another vector addition technique. However, if done with care using a ruler and
a protractor, the graphical vector addition technique is a fairly accurate method
for determining the resultant of several vectors.

Graphical Subtraction of Vectors

If 2 vectors are going in opposite directions, you subtract.
Example: A man walks 54.5 meters east, then 30 meters west. Calculate his
displacement relative to where he started?

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Components of a Vector
A different vector addition technique that is more accurate, faster and more
convenient for solving a variety of interesting problems involving vectors will be
introduced in this section. The component method, as it is called, depends on
our ability to resolve a vector into components that is separating the vectors
into horizontal and vertical components.

Consider the displacement vector illustrated in the figure below.

A coordinate system has been drawn that has an x axis pointing east and a y
axis pointing north. The x component of A is a vector Ax that points along the
x axis and whose length equals the projection of A on that axis. The y
component of A is the projection of A on the y axis and is labeled Ay.

It is important to notice that the vector sum of Ax and Ay equals A.

In the component method of adding vectors, each vector being added is first
resolved into its components. Then, instead of adding the vectors, we add their
components. This seems reasonable since the components of a vector, when
added, equal the vector itself. Thus, it should not matter whether we add the
vectors or their components.

How do we determine the value of the components of a vector of known

magnitude and direction?

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

First, consider a component's direction. The subscript on a component - for

example, the x on Ax - indicates the axis along which the component lies. In
preceding figure, the x and y axes each have a positive direction, with arrows at
their heads (to the right for the x axis and pointing upward for the y axis).

The opposite directions are the negative directions. If a component points in

the positive direction of an axis, it is given a positive sign. If it points
toward the negative direction of the axis, it is given a negative sign.

Next, we need to determine the magnitude of the components. For this, a brief
review on trigonometry is helpful. Consider the right triangle:

Recall the definitions of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions.

Opposite side o
sin θ= = ,
Hypotenuse h

Adjacent side a
cos θ= = ,
Hypotenuse h

Opposite side o
tanθ= = ,
Adjacent side a
Using these relationships, we can find the magnitude of the force components
shown in the figure:

*If F and  are known, FX and FY can be found using trigonometry.

The hypotenuse is the magnitude F of the force and the sides are the
magnitudes of the x and y components of F. Thus
Fy
sin θ= Or F y =F sin θ (Eq.1)
F

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Fx
cos θ= Or F x =F cos θ (Eq. 2)
F

Fy
tanθ= (Eq.3)
Fx

Equation (1) and (2) are used to calculate the magnitudes of FX and FY if F and
 are known.

The technique for finding the components of vector may be summarized as

follows.

The x and y components of a vector F are

F x =± F cos θ (Eq.4)

F y =± F sin θ (Eq. 5)
Where F is the magnitude of the vector and  is the angle (90 or less) that F
makes with the x - axis. FX is positive if it points in the positive x direction
and negative if it points in the negative x direction. FY is either positive or
negative, depending on its direction relative to the y - axis.

Be sure to note that angle  appearing in Equations (4) and (5) is the angle
that the vector makes with the positive or negative x axis and not the angle
it makes with the y axis.

EXAMPLE 1: A carpenter pulls a load of lumber on a cart with a 60-lb force

directly 40 above the horizontal. Calculate the horizontal and vertical
components of the force.

SOLUTION: The force and a set of axes used to describe it are shown in the
figure below. Both force components shown in the figure are positive.

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Since F=60 lb andθ=40, we find using equations (4) and (5) that
F x =Fcosθ=( 60 lb )( cos 40 ° )=46 lb,
F y =Fsinθ=( 60 lb )( sin 40° )=39 lb .

Different conventions are used for calculating components of vectors. You

may find in another course or book that the positive and negative signs are
omitted when calculating FX and FY. In that case, the angle  is the
counterclockwise angle from the positive x axis to the vector and can
assume a value between 0 and 360. If you use this convention, then
F x =F cos θand F y =F sin θ and the signs of FX and FY depend on the signs
of the trigonometric functions. Either convention works fine, but do not
mix them. Choose one and use it consistently.

Vector Addition Technique Using Components

To add a group of vectors to find the resultant R=F 1 + F 2+ F 3 +… , we first add

the x components of the vectors to find RX and then add the y components to
find RY:
R x =F1 + F 2 + F3 + … ,
x x
(Eq. 7)
x

R y =F 1 + F 2 + F 3 + … ,
y y y
(Eq. 8)
Equations (7) and (8) are used to find the components of each vector. Having
found RX and RY, the magnitude of the resultant is
R=√ R x + R y (Eq. 9)
2 2

The quadrant in which R points is determined from a picture of R constructed

from RX and RY. The exact angle  that R makes with the positive or negative x
axis is determined from the equation

tanθ=
|| Ry
Rx
, or (Eq. 10)

θ=tan
| |.
−1 Ry
Rx
(Eq. 11)

EXAMPLE 2: Three people pull ropes attached to a trailer hitch on the bumper
of a car stuck in the mud. Calculate the resultant of the three forces.

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

SOLUTION: Check carefully the sign and angle used to calculate the
components of each force. The resultant components are as follows:
R x =F1 x + F 2 x + F 3 x
¿−F1 cos 30 °−F 2 cos 0 °−F3 cos 53 °
¿−( 180 N ) 0.87−( 520 N ) 1.00−( 380 N ) 0.60
R x =−905 N ,

R y =F 1 y + F 2 y + F 3 y
¿ F 1 sin 30 ° + F2 sin 0 °−F 3 sin 53 °
¿ ( 180 N ) 0.50+ ( 520 N ) 0.00−( 380 N ) 0.80
R y =−213 N .

We see that the three ropes together exert a net or resultant force whose x
component equals -905 N and whose y component equals -213 N. (We will
round off to two significant digits when we get our final answer.)

Having around R x and R y , we construct R .

We see that R points into the third quadrant. The graphical addition of F 1 , F 2
and F 3 shown in the succeeding figure confirms that R points into the third
quadrant (a good check on our math).

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

The magnitude of R and the exact angle that it makes with the x axis is
calculated using Equations (9) and (10):

R=√ 9052+ 2132=930 N ,

Or
213 N
tanθ= =0.235 .
905 N

According to our table of tangents, a 13° angle has a tangent of 0.235. Since R
points into the third quadrant, its direction must be 13° below the negative x
axis and it has a magnitude of 930 N.

We should note that this single resultant force R would have exactly the same
effect on the car as the three forces shown in the figure. The resultant force
equals the vector sum of the three forces both mathematically and in terms of
its effect on the car.

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Multiple Choice Choose the letter of the correct answer. Is a problem needs
solving then show you solution.
1. We say that the displacement of a particle is a vector quantity. Our best
justification for this assertion is:
a. displacement can be specified by a magnitude and a direction
b. operating with displacements according to the rules for manipulating vectors
leads to results in agreement with experiments
c. a displacement is obviously not a scalar
d. displacement can be specified by three numbers
e. displacement is associated with motion
2. The vectorsa⃗ ,b⃗ , and c⃗ are related by c⃗ = b⃗ − a⃗ . Which diagram below
illustrates this relationship?

3. The vector − ⃗ A is:

a. greater than ⃗ A in magnitude
b. less than ⃗ A magnitude
in
c. in the same direction as ⃗ A
d. in the direction opposite to ⃗ A
e. perpendicular to ⃗ A
4. Vectors ⃗ A and ⃗ Blie in the xy plane. We can deduce that ⃗
A =⃗
B if:
2 2 2 2
a. A x+ A y = Bx + B y
b. A x + A y =B x + B y
c. A x= Bx and A y= B y
Ay By
d. =
Ax Bx
e. A x = A y and Bx = B y

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

5. A vector has a magnitude of 12. When its tail is at the origin it lies between
the positive x axis and the negative y axis and makes an angle of 30◦ with
the x axis. Its y component is:
a. 6/√3 b. −6√3 c. 6 d. −6 e. 12
6. A vector has a component of 10 m in the +x direction, a component of 10 m
in the +y direction, and a component of 5 m in the +z direction. The
magnitude of this vector is:
a. zero b. 15 m c. 20 m d. 25 m e. 225 m

7. A vector in the xy plane has a magnitude of 25 m and an x component of 12

m. The angle it makes with the positive x axis is:
a. 26◦ b. 29◦ c. 61◦ d. 64◦ e. 241◦
8. In the diagram, ⃗ A has magnitude 12 m and ⃗ B has magnitude 8 m. The x
⃗ ⃗
component of A + B is about:
a. 5.5 m
b. 7.6 m
c. 12 m
d. 14 m
e. 15 m

9. Which one of the following expressions may be used to correctly find the
angle θ in the drawing?

−1 5 −1 2 −1 5
a. θ=cos c. θ=sin e. θ=sin
2 5 2
−1 5 −1 2
b. θ=tan d. θ=tan
2 5
10. The length of each side of a square is 4.0 m. What is the length of the
diagonal of the square (shown as a dashed line in the figure)?
a. 2.8 m d. 8.0 m
b. 3.5 m e. 16 m
c. 5.7 m

11. Three sticks are arranged to form a right triangle. If the lengths of the three
sticks are 0.47 m, 0.62 m and 0.78 m, what are the three angles of the
triangle?
a. 90°, 45°, and 45°
b. 90°, 62°, and 28°
c. 90°, 59°, and 31°
d. 90°, 48°, and 42°

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

e. 90°, 53°, and 37°

12. A 2.5-m ladder leans against a wall and makes an angle with the wall of
32° as shown in the figure. What is the height h above the floor where the
ladder makes contact with the wall?
a. 2.1 m b. 1.3 m c. 2.4 m d. 1.6 m e. 1.9 m
13. A pole is held vertically by attaching wires at a height of 13.4 m above the
ground. The other end of each wire is anchored in the ground at a distance
of 9.54 m from the base of the pole. The pole makes a right angle with the
ground. What is the length of each wire?
a. 14.1 m b. 19.7 m c. 11.5 m d. 16.4 m e. 22.8 m
14. A certain mountain road is inclined 3.1° with respect to the horizon. What is
the change in altitude of the car as a result of its traveling 2.90 km along
the road?
a. 157 m b. 181 m c. 116 m d. 203 m e. 289 m
15. A surveyor wants to find the distance across a river. A stake is placed on
each bank of the river as shown in the figure. She measures a distance of
30.0 m from one stake to another on the same side of the river, thus finding
the third vertex on a right triangle. She then measures the angle θ and finds
it equal to 75.9°. What is the distance across the river?
a. 89.2 m
b. 119 m
c. 268 m
d. 15.3 m
e. 29.0 m

16. Which one of the following choices is a vector quantity?

a. mass b. temperature c. time d. displacement e. volume
17. Which one of the following quantities is a vector quantity?
a. the age of the earth
b. the mass of a football
c. the earth's pull on your body
d. the temperature of an iron bar
e. the number of people attending a baseball game
18. Which one of the following statements is true concerning scalar quantities?
a. Scalar quantities must be represented by base units.
b. Scalar quantities have both magnitude and direction.
c. Scalar quantities can be added to vector quantities using rules of
trigonometry.
d. Scalar quantities can be added to other scalar quantities using rules of
trigonometry.
e. Scalar quantities can be added to other scalar quantities using rules of
ordinary addition.
19. Two vectors A and B are added together to form a vector C. The
relationship between the magnitudes of the vectors is given by A + B = C.
Which one of the following statements concerning these vectors is true?

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

a. A and B must be displacements.

b. A and B must have equal lengths.
c. A and B must point in opposite directions.
d. A and B must point in the same direction.
e. A and B must be at right angles to each other.

20. Two vectors A and B are added together to form a vector C. The
relationship between the magnitudes of the vectors is given by: A 2 + B2 =
C2. Which statement concerning these vectors is true?
a. A and B must be at right angles to each other.
b. A and B could have any orientation relative to each other.
c. A and B must have equal lengths.
d. A and B must be parallel.
e. A and B could be antiparallel.
21. What is the angle between the vectors A and –A when they are drawn from
a common origin?
a. 0° b. 90° c. 180° d. 270° e. 360°
22. Which one of the following statements concerning vectors and scalars is
false?
a. In calculations, the vector components of a vector may be used in place
of the vector itself.
b. It is possible to use vector components that are not perpendicular.
c. A scalar component may be either positive or negative.
d. A vector that is zero may have components other than zero.
e. Two vectors are equal only if they have the same magnitude and
direction.
23. A displacement vector has a magnitude of 810 m and points at an angle of
18° above the positive x axis. What are the x and y scalar components of
this vector?
x scalar component y scalar component
a. 770 m 250 m
b. 560 m 585 m
c. 585 m 560 m
d. 250 m 750 m
e. 713 m 385 m
24. A displacement vector is 23 km in length and is directed 65° south of east.
What are the components of this vector?
Eastward Component Southward Component
a. 21 km 9.7 km
b. 23 km 23 km
c. 23 km 0 km
d. 9.7 km 21 km
e. 0 km 23 km
25. BONUS

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Answer the following questions completely and logically. Box your final answer.

Graphical Addition and Subtraction of Vectors

1. To reach you first class walking on sidewalks, you must go 500 m west, 200
m south, and then 100 m east. Estimate your resultant displacement.
2. A man hikes 10 km south and then an unknown distance west. He is now 14
km as the crow flies from where he started. Determine the distance that he
walked toward the west.

Vector Addition by Components

3. The displacement from Scot's to Jodi's apartment is 3.0 km east. Scot tells
Jodi that he wants to meet her at a picnic ground that is a 5.0 km 70° south
of east from his apartment. What is the displacement of the picnic ground
from Jodi's apartment?
4. A group of backpackers, after three days hiking, are 30 km north of their
starting position. On the first day they hiked 20 km east. On the second day
they hiked 30 km in a direction 53 north of west. Use the component
method to calculate their displacement on the third day

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Lesson 3
Kinematics: Motion along a Straight Line

Learning Outcomes
1. Convert a verbal description of a physical situation involving
motion in a straight line with constant acceleration into a
mathematical description.
2. Solve problems involving motion in a straight line with constant
acceleration.
3. Explain distance–time graphs and speed–time graphs.
4. Recognize whether or not a physical situation involves constant
velocity or constant acceleration

Objects are in motion all around us. Everything from a tennis match to a space-
probe flyby of the planet Neptune involves motion. When you are resting, your
heart moves blood through your veins. Even in inanimate objects there is
continuous motion in the vibrations of atoms and molecules. Interesting
questions about motion can arise: how long will it take for a space probe to
travel to Mars? Where will a football land if thrown at a certain angle?

An understanding of motion is vital to understanding other concepts in physics.

With Physics, you can describe the motion of objects more exactly by using
mathematical equations. These equations are often expressions of physical
laws – principles that have been verified through a large number of
experiments and, in many cases, common experiences.

Our first use of physical quantities in the analysis of natural phenomena

involves subject called kinematics, the quantitative description of an object’s
motion. It can be used to estimate the time needed for a rapid-transit train to
travel between stations, the time of a skydiver to fall a certain distance, or the
deceleration of a person stopped abruptly during a car collision. These

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calculations rely on careful definitions of quantities such as velocity and

acceleration.

Motion in One Dimension

When the position of object changes on a straight line i.e. motion of object
along straight line is called motion in one dimension. To understand the
essential concepts of one dimensional motion we have to go through some
basic definitions.

Motion

The position of object can change on a straight line (like on x-axis with respect
to origin) or on a plane with respect to some fixed point on frame.

Motion - an object or a body is said to be in motion if its position

continuously changes with time with reference to a fixed point (or fixed
frame of reference).

* Note that, the moving object is either a particle, a point object (such as an electron) or an
object that moves like a particle. A body is said to be moving like if every portion of it moves in
the same direction and at the same rate.

Frame of Reference

Whenever we talk about motion, we must always specify the position from
which the motion is being observed and measured. For example, a person who
walks along the aisle of a moving train maybe walking at a speed of 1 kilometer
per hour relative to his seat, but 60 kilometers per hour relative to the railroad
station. We call the place from which motion is observed and measured a
frame of reference.

Frame of reference - is a vantage point (usually set of coordinate axes)

with respect to which position and motion may be described.

Different frames of reference move relative to one another. An object may have
different velocities relative to different frame of reference. The essential
requirement for a frame of reference is that, it should be rigid.

Coordinate Systems

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To describe an object’s motion, we must first construct a coordinate system

consisting of one or more axes used to indicate an object’s position, velocity,
and acceleration at different times. Each axis must have (1) a direction called
positive, the opposite direction being negative, and (2) an origin, the zero point
that serves as a reference for indicating distances along each axis.

Displacement and Distance

Displacement, d, a vector quantity, indicates the separation of one point from

another and the direction of that separation. Suppose that at time t1 a boat is
northeast of Bermuda at position r1, as shown in the figure below. Two hours
later at time t2, the boat is directly north of Bermuda at position r 2. The boat’s
displacement d during that time is represented by a vector pointing from its
initial position to its final position.

Using the graphical vector addition technique, we see from the figure that
r 1 +d =r 2, or rearranging,
d=r 2−r 1The boat’s displacement is its final position minus its initial position.

Displacement – is defined as a vector that points from an object’s initial

position to its final position and whose magnitude equals the distance
separating the points.

Displacement can be calculated by subtracting a vector from the origin to the

object’s final position and a vector from the origin to its final position:

Displacement = Final position – Initial position

*The units of displacement are units of length – meter, kilometer, mile, foot, and so on.

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For linear motion along a single axis, such as the x axis, we can represent an
object’s initial position at time t1 by the coordinate system x1 and its final
position at time t2 by the coordinate x2. The object’s displacement between
those times is the
d= x2−x 1

Speed and Velocity

Speed and velocity are similar quantities in that they both describe how fast an
object moves. There is, however, a significant difference. Velocity is a vector
quantity that specifies both how fast and in what direction an object moves,
whereas speed specifies only how fast the object moves – not its direction.

Average Speed

Average speed ( v ) – is defined as the distance traveled divided by the

time required to travel that distance:

Distance traveled d
v= =
Elapsed time t
* A line over a symbol indicates the average value of the quantity under the line. Units of speed
include km/h, m/s, mi/h, or any unit of distance divided by time.

Average Velocity

The average velocity (v) of an object during some time period is the
object’s displacement (a vector) during that time divided by the time:

Displacement
v=
Elapsed time
For one – dimensional motion:

Displacement along one axis x 2−x 1

v= =
Elapsed time t 2−t 1
where x1 is the object’s position along the axis at time t1, and x2 is its position at
t2.

Instantaneous Speed and Velocity

The speed that something has at any one instant is called instantaneous
speed. It is the speed registered by the speedometer of a car. When we say
that the speed of a car at some particular instant is 60 kilometer per hour, we
are specifying instantaneous speed, and we mean that if the car continued

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moving as fast for one hour, it would travel 60 kilometers. If it continued at that
speed for half an hour, it would cover only half the distance: 30 kilometers. If it
continued for only 1 minute, it would cover only 1 kilometer.

Instantaneous speed and average speed are often quite different, particularly
when the time interval is large. For extremely short intervals, on the other hand,
average speed and instantaneous speed are the same. Whether we talk about
average speed or instantaneous speed, we are talking about the rates at which
distance is traveled.

Instantaneous velocity indicates how fast an object moves at each instant of

time and the direction of that motion.

The instantaneous velocity of an object moving along the x axis is its change in
position x divided by the very short time t required for this change:

d
Instantaneous one – dimensional velocity = v=
t

*If the object moves in the positive x direction, x is positive, as is the velocity. If the object
moves in the negative x direction, x and v are both negative.

Acceleration

Whenever the velocity of an object changes, we say that the object is

accelerating. We can change the velocity of something by changing its
speed, by changing its direction, or by changing both its speed and its
direction. A car waiting at a red light accelerates after the stoplight changes to
green. Its velocity increases from zero as its moves through the intersection. A
car also accelerates when it comes to a stop at a stop sign. We often call this a
deceleration – a decrease in the speed of an object. The words change in
velocity is especially important in understanding the meaning of acceleration.
An object moving at a constant high speed in a straight line is not accelerating
because its velocity is not changing.

The average acceleration,a , of the object is its change in velocity divided by the
time required for that change:

Change∈velocity v 2−v 1
a= =
Elapsed time t 2−t 1

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The units of acceleration are the units of velocity divided by the unit of time (s).
Thus, the metric unit of acceleration is (m/s)/s = m/s 2, that is the distance
divided by the time squared.

To get a better sense of the units of acceleration, you might think of an

acceleration of 1 m/s2 as being a change in velocity of 1 m/s in a time of 1s, a
change in velocity of 2m/s in 2s, or a change in velocity of 10 m/s in 10s. In
each case, the velocity changed on the average by 1 m/s during each second
and the average acceleration was the same– (1m/s)/1s = (2m/s)2s =
(10m/s)/10s = 1 m/s2.

Three factors affect acceleration: (1) the change in the magnitude of the
object’s velocity – that is, its change in speed; (2) the change in the
direction of the object’s velocity; and (3) the time required for these
changes.

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Multiple Choice Choose the letter of the correct answer. If a problem needs
solving then show you solution.
1. A particle travels along a curved path between two points P and Q as shown.
The displacement of the particle does not depend on
a. the location of P.
b. the location of Q.
c. the distance traveled from P to Q.
d. the shortest distance between P and Q.
e. the direction of Q from P.
2. For which one of the following situations will the path length equal the
magnitude of the displacement?
a. A jogger is running around a circular path.
b. A ball is rolling down an inclined plane.
c. A train travels 5 miles east; and then, it stops and travels 2 miles west.
d. A ball rises and falls after being thrown straight up from the earth's
surface.
e. A ball on the end of a string is moving in a vertical circle.
3. A particle moves along the x axis from x i to xf. Of the following values of the
initial and final coordinates, which results in the displacement with the
largest magnitude?
a. xi = 4 m, xf = 6m c. xi = −4 m, xf = 2m e. xi = −4 m, xf = 4m
b. xi = −4 m, xf = −8 m d. xi = 4 m, xf = −2 m
4. A particle moves along the x axis from x i to xf. Of the following values of the
initial and final coordinates, which results in a negative displacement?
a. xi = 4 m, xf = 6m c. xi = −4 m, xf = 2m e. xi = −4 m, xf = 4m
b. xi = −4 m, xf = −8 m d. xi = −4 m, xf = −2m
5. Which one of the physical quantities listed below is not correctly paired with
its SI unit and dimension?
Quantity Unit Dimension
a. velocity m/s [L]/[T]
b. path length m [L]
c. speed m/s [L]/[T]

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

d. displacement m/s2 [L]/[T]2

e. speed × time m [L]

Questions 6 and 7 pertain to the situation described below:

Peter noticed a bug crawling along a meter stick and decided to record the
bug’s position in five-second intervals. After the bug crawled off the meter stick,
Peter created the table shown.

6. What is the displacement of the bug between t = 0.00 s and t = 20.0 s?

a. +39.9 cm c. +65.7 cm e. +16.1 cm
b. –39.9 cm d. –16.1 cm
7. What is the total distance that the bug traveled between t = 0.00 s and t =
20.0 s? Assume the bug only changed directions at the end of a five-second
interval.
a. 39.9 cm c. 16.1 cm e. 26.5 cm
b. 65.7 cm d. 47.1 cm
8. A car travels in a straight line covering a total distance of 90.0 miles in 60.0
minutes. Which one of the following statements concerning this situation is
necessarily true?
a. The velocity of the car is constant.
b. The acceleration of the car must be non-zero.
c. The first 45 miles must have been covered in 30.0 minutes.
d. The speed of the car must be 90.0 miles per hour throughout the entire
trip.
e. The average velocity of the car is 90.0 miles per hour in the direction of
motion.
9. A Canadian goose flew 845 km from Southern California to Oregon with an
average speed of 30.5 m/s. How long, in hours, did it take the goose to
make this journey?
a. 27.7 h c. 66.1 h e. 7.70 h
b. 8.33 h d. 462 h
10. In the process of delivering mail, a postal worker walks 161 m, due east
from his truck. He then turns around and walks 194 m, due west from his
truck. What is the worker’s displacement relative to his truck?

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

a. 33 m, due west c. 194 m, due west e. 355 m, due west

b. 33 m, due east d. 252 m, due east

11. When the outdoor emergency warning siren at Cheryl’s school was tested,
the sound from the siren took 7.0 s to reach her house located 2.40 km from
the school. What is the speed of sound in air?
a. 240 m/s c. 440 m/s e. 640 m/s
b. 340 m/s d. 540 m/s
12. The average speed of a moving object during a given interval of time is
always:
a. the magnitude of its average velocity over the interval
b. the distance covered during the time interval divided by the time interval
c. one-half its speed at the end of the interval
d. its acceleration multiplied by the time interval
e. one-half its acceleration multiplied by the time interval.
13. A car starts from Hither, goes 50 km in a straight line to Yon, immediately
turns around, and returns to Hither. The time for this round trip is 2 hours.
The magnitude of the average velocity of the car for this round trip is:
a. 0 b. 50 km/hr c. 100 km/hr d. 200 km/hr
e. cannot be calculated without knowing the acceleration
14. A car starts from Hither, goes 50 km in a straight line to Yon, immediately
turns around, and returns to Hither. The time for this round trip is 2 hours.
The average speed of the car for this round trip is:
a. 0 b. 50 km/h c. 100 km/h d. 200 km/h
e. cannot be calculated without knowing the acceleration
15. In which one of the following situations does the car have a westward
acceleration?
a. The car travels westward at constant speed.
b. The car travels eastward and speeds up.
c. The car travels westward and slows down.
d. The car travels eastward and slows down.
e. The car starts from rest and moves toward the east.
16. An elevator is moving upward with a speed of 11 m/s. Three seconds later,
the elevator is still moving upward, but its speed has been reduced to 5.0
m/s. What is the average acceleration of the elevator during the 3.0 s
interval?
a. 2.0 m/s2, downward
b. 2.0 m/s2, upward
c. 5.3 m/s2, downward
d. 5.3 m/s2, upward
e. 2.7 m/s2, downward

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

17. A landing airplane makes contact with the runway with a speed of 78.0 m/s
and moves toward the south. After 18.5 seconds, the airplane comes to
rest. What is the average acceleration of the airplane during the landing?
a. 2.11 m/s2, north
b. 2.11 m/s2, south
c. 4.22 m/s2, north
d. 4.22 m/s2, south
e. 14.3 m/s2, north
18. Of the following situations, which one is impossible?
a. A body having velocity east and acceleration east
b. A body having velocity east and acceleration west
c. A body having zero velocity and non-zero acceleration
d. A body having constant acceleration and variable velocity
e. A body having constant velocity and variable acceleration
19. Throughout a time interval, while the speed of a particle increases as it
moves along the x axis, its velocity and acceleration might be:
a. positive and negative, respectively
b. negative and positive, respectively
c. negative and negative, respectively
d. negative and zero, respectively
e. positive and zero, respectively
20. A particle moves on the x axis. When its acceleration is positive and
increasing:
a. its velocity must be positive
b. its velocity must be negative
c. it must be slowing down
d. it must be speeding up
e. none of the above must be true

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Answer the following questions completely and logically. Box your final answer.

Speed & Velocity

1. If the continents are drifting apart at a constant speed of 3 cm/yr and Africa
and South America are separated by 6.4 x 10 8 cm, how long has this drift
been occurring?
2. A person runs 800m at an average speed of 6.0 m/s and then the next 800m
at an average speed of 8.0 m/s. Calculate (a) the total time required and (b)
the average speed.
3. A student in Tallahassee drives to Fort Lauderdale for spring vacation by first
going 280 km east to pick up a friend in Jacksonville and then 510 km south
to Fort Lauderdale.(We will ignore the small eastward displacement from
Jacksonville to Fort Lauderdale.) The whole trip takes 9.6 hours. Calculate
(a) the student’s average speed and (b) average velocity.
4. On the way to class you walk east and then south such that your resultant
displacement is 360m in a direction 53 south of east. Your average velocity
is 2.0 m/s in same direction as the displacement. Calculate (a) your walking
time and (b) your average speed. (HINT: The distance traveled is greater
than 360m.)

Acceleration
5. A jogger running at +4.0 m/s undergoes the same acceleration during 5.0 s
as a bus whose velocity increases from +16.0 m/s to +20.0 m/s in 8.0 s.
Calculate the jogger’s final velocity.
6. A car traveling at 16 m/s crashes into an embankment and stops in 0.080 s.
Calculate its average acceleration and indicate the direction of the
acceleration relative to the initial velocity.

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Lesson 4
LINEAR MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION

In this section four simple equations will be derived that would relate the
position, velocity, and acceleration of an object at different times. With one of
this equation an object’s acceleration can be calculated if its position and
velocity at two different times are known. By using other equations an object’s
future position and velocity can be calculated if its acceleration is known.

Although these simple equations are easier to use than the techniques
developed in the last sections, they have one major advantage: the equations
apply only to linear motion for objects whose acceleration is constant.
Few situations in life involve constant acceleration, but many come close (for
example, the acceleration of a falling object or of a car skidding to a stop).
These equations are often used in such situations even though the acceleration
is not strictly constant.

The four equations are derived using the definitions of average velocity and
acceleration. The object whose motion being consider is initially (that is, at
time zero) at position x 0moving at velocity v 0. The object experiences constant
acceleration (or deceleration),a , and at some later time t is at position x moving
at velocity v . Because the derivations are done for linear motion, the vector
sign is omitted and keep track of directions using positive and negative signs
only.

EQUATION 1
Since the object’s velocity has changed by an amount v−v 0 during a time
t−0 , its acceleration during that time is

v−v 0
a= .
t−0

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Rearranging this equation to solve for v gives us our first equation of linear
motion with constant acceleration:

v=v 0 + at . (Eq.1)

EQUATION 2
The next equation is derived by equating two different expressions for the
average velocity of an object that starts at time zero with velocity v 0 and ends at
time t with velocity v . To develop the first expression, the velocity is plotted on
the ordinate of a graph versus time on the abscissa, as shown in the figure
below.

* A velocity-versus-time graph is a straight line for constant acceleration

The straight line represents the equation v=v 0 + at . Att−0 , the velocity equals v 0.
Since the acceleration is constant, the velocity increases in direct proportion to
t and is represented by the straight line shown in the graph. The average value
of the velocity during that time interval is just the arithmetic average of the initial
velocity and the final velocity:

v +v 0
v= .
2

The average velocity also equals the displacement of the object divided by the
time required for the displacement. If the object starts at position x 0 at time zero
and ends at position x at time t , its displacement is x−x 0. Thus, its average
velocity is

Displacement x−x o
v= = .
Time t

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

We can now equate the two expressions of average velocity:

x−x o v +v 0
= .
t 2

Rearranging the above produces our second equation of motion for constant
acceleration:

x−x o= ( )
v + v0
2
t. (Eq. 2)

EQUATION 3
The third equation is obtained by substituting v=v 0 + at for v in Eq. 2:

x−x 0= ( ) [
v + v0
2
t=
( v 0 +at ) + v 0
2 ]t

When rearranged, we have our third equation:

1 2
x−x o=v o t+ at . (Eq.3)
2

EQUATION 4
The last equation is obtained by solving Eq.1 fort :

v=v 0 + at (
t=
v−v 0
a
.)
This expression for t is then inserted into Eq. 2:

( ) ( )( )
2 2
v + v0 v + v0 v −v 0 v −v 0
x−x o= t= =
2 2 a 2a

Rearranging, we obtain the fourth equation of motion:

2 a ( x−x 0 )=( v 2 −v 20 ) . (Eq.4)

In summary, then, we have four equations of motion for constant acceleration

that relate the object’s accelerationa , initial position x 0 and initial velocity v 0 at
time zero to the object’s final position x and final velocity v at time t :

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

EQUATIONS FOR LINEAR MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION

v=v 0 + at Eq.1

x−x o= ( v +2v ) t
0
Eq.2

1 2 Eq.3
x−x o=v o t+ at
2
2 a ( x−x 0 )=( v 2 −v 20 ) Eq.4

Solving Problems in Kinematics

This kinematics problem-solving procedure involves six steps. The first two steps and
the last step are especially important because they apply to most problem-solving in
physics.

Each step of the procedure is illustrated for the following problem: Determine the
average acceleration of Shirley Muldowney’s 1979 record-setting drag racecar. The
initial velocity was zero, and the final velocity, after the car had traveled 409 m, was
114 m/s.

1. The first step in solving most physics problems involves drawing a picture or
diagram of the situation described in the problem. Include in the diagram (a) a
drawing that represents your interpretation of what is happening, (b) a
coordinate axis or axes, (c) the values of known quantities represented in
terms of appropriate symbols, and (d) a symbol for the unknown quantity
you wish to determine. The picture puts all the problem information in front
of you in an easily accessible form and also gives you a better intuitive grasp of
the problem.

2. Divide and conquer. Some of the more complex and interesting problems of
real life must first be divided into parts. Each part can often be solved with
relative ease even though the original problem might have seemed impossibly
complicated. The problem illustrated in the figure for Step 1 does not need to be

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

broken in parts. However, we use the “divide and conquer” procedure later in other
examples.
3. Find one of the equations listed earlier in which the only unknown quantity in
the equation is the one whose value you wish to calculate.
For the problem illustrated here, the only unknown in Eq. 4 is acceleration –
( x−x 0 ), v , and v 0 are known.
2 a ( x−x 0 )=( v 2 −v 20 )
4. Rearrange the equation so that the unknown appears alone on the left and the
known quantities are on the right. You have much less chance of error if you
rearrange the equation before you substitute known quantities.
2 2
v −v 0
a=
2 ( x−x 0 )

5. Substitute the values of the known quantities and calculate the value of the
unknown, including its units.

( 114 m/ s )2−02
a=
2 ( 402 m−0 )
2
a=+16.2 m/s

6. Check your work. Does your answer have the correct units? If not, you may
have made a mistake in your algebraic manipulations. Does the magnitude of
the answer seem reasonable?
For this problem, we found that the answer had units of m/s 2, the correct units
for acceleration. The drag racer’s average acceleration was 16.2 m/s 2 – the
velocity increased by 16.2 m/s (about 36 mi/h) during each second. This seems
reasonable – a drag racer’s velocity should be able to increase from zero to 36
mi/h in one second or from 36 to 72 mi/h in the next second. However, if you
answer had been 1000 m/s2, you had better check your work – the car’s
velocity could certainly not increase by 1000 m/s in one second!

Now let’s try these procedures on some problems.

EXAMPLE 1 A pole vaulter after crossing the bar lands on a foam cushion. His
downward speed as he first touches the cushion is 6.8 m/s, and he sinks 25 cm
into the cushion before stopping. Estimate his acceleration, assumed constant,
while being stopped by the cushion.

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

SOLUTION A diagram illustrating the situation described in the problem is

shown in the figure below.

To express the given information quantitatively, we must first choose a

coordinate system. For this problem, we choose the y-axis pointing down, with
the origin at the vaulter first touches the cushion. With this coordinate system,
the known information is as follows:
At time zero (as vaulter At time t (as vaulter stops
touches the cushion) after sinking into cushion)

y 0=0 y=+ 0.25 m

v 0=+6.8 m/s v=0

Equation 4 can be rearranged to determine the vaulter's acceleration.
2 2
v −v 0
a=
2( y − y0)
2
¿ 0 −¿ ¿
2
a=−92 m/s
The minus sign indicates that the acceleration, a vector, points in the negative
direction-up in the case. The vaulter's velocity in the positive (downward)
direction decreased.
The answer has the correct units, but the magnitude seems fairly large-a
velocity change of 92 m/s in one second. The velocity does not of course
change by 92 m/s since the vaulter's initial velocity was only 6.8 m/s. However,
we can get an acceleration of magnitude 92 m/s² from a small velocity change
if the change occurs over a very short time-the time needed for the vaulter to
stop. For example, if the stopping time was 0.074 s (less than one-tenth of a

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

second), the magnitude of the average acceleration ∆ v /∆ t during that short

time would be (6.8 m/s)/0.074 s = 92 m/s². Thus, the deceleration can be
large in magnitude if the stopping time is short-which it is in this problem
and in many problems that involve the abrupt impact of one object with another.
EXAMPLE 2 A bank robber traveling at 75 mi/h in an escape car suddenly
sees a barricade 150 m ahead. The robber slams on the brakes following a
0.75-s delay (the driver's reaction time). After the brakes are applied, the car
decelerates at 4.2 m/s². Will the car hit the barricade and, if so, what is its
speed?
SOLUTION The problem is pictured schematically in the following figure.

Notice the picture contains a coordinate axis and the known information given
with the appropriate kinematic symbols.
Our next task is to restate the problem (does the car hit the barricade?) in a
form that relates directly to some kinematic quantity. We try to determine at
what position the car would stop if the barricade were not present. If the
stopping position is to the right of the barricade, the car will hit it before
stopping.
The calculation of this stopping distance requires a “divide and conquer”
approach. We divide car's motion in two parts.
(1) It moves at constant speed (zero acceleration) while driver reacts to get her
or his foot on the brakes.
(2) The car's brakes are applied, causing to decelerate and eventually stop.
The distance traveled in the first part is called the reaction or thinking
distance and the distance in the second part is called the braking distance.
The total stopping distance is the sum of the reaction and braking distances.
Reaction Distance: The known information in this part of the trip is as follows:

(
v 0= 75 )(
mi 1609 m
h mi )( 3600
1h
)s =33.5 ms ,a=0 , t=0.75 s .
Substituting into Eq. 3, we find the reaction distance:
1 2
x−x 0=v 0 t+ a t
2

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

(
¿ 33.5
m
s ) 1
( 0.75 s ) + (0)¿
2
x−x 0=25.1 m .

Breaking Distance: This represents the separate part of the problem in which
the known follows:
v 0=33.5 m/s (Initial velocity when braking starts),

v=0 (Final velocity),

2
a=−4.2m/ s .
Equation 4 can be rearranged to find the braking distance:
2 2
v −v 0
x−x 0=
2a

( )
2
m2
0 − 33.5
s
x−x 0=
m
2 −4.2 2
s ( )
x−x 0=133.6 m .

The stopping distance is the sum of the reaction and braking distance.
Stopping distance = 25.1 m + 133.6 m = 158.7 m.
Since the barricade is only 150 m from where the robber sees it, the car will hit
the barricade.
To determine the car's speed at the barricade, note that the barricade is 150 m
- 25.1 m = 124.9 m from where the brakes are first applied. Using Eq. 4, we
can solve for the car's speed when it reaches the barricade after decelerating
for 124.9 m:
2 2
v =2 a ( x−x 0 ) +v 0

2
v =2
( −4.2 m
s
2 )
( 124.9m ) +¿

2 2 2
v =73.1 m / s

√ v 2= √73.1 m2 / s 2
v=8.5 m/s .

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Multiple Choice Choose the letter of the correct answer. If a problem needs
solving then show you solution.
1. In which one of the following cases is the displacement of the object directly
proportional to the elapsed time?
a. a ball rolls with constant velocity
b. a ball at rest is given a constant acceleration
c. a ball rolling with velocity vo is given a constant acceleration
d. a bead falling through oil experiences a decreasing acceleration
e. a rocket fired from the earth's surface experiences an increasing acceleration
2. Which one of the following situations is not possible?
a. A body has zero velocity and non-zero acceleration.
b. A body travels with a northward velocity and a northward acceleration.
c. A body travels with a northward velocity and a southward acceleration.
d. A body travels with a constant velocity and a time-varying acceleration.
e. A body travels with a constant acceleration and a time-varying velocity.
3. Starting from rest, a particle confined to move along a straight line is
accelerated at a rate of 5.0 m/s2. Which one of the following statements
accurately describes the motion of this particle?
a. The particle travels 5.0 m during each second.
b. The particle travels 5.0 m only during the first second.
c. The speed of the particle increases by 5.0 m/s during each second.
d. The acceleration of the particle increases by 5.0 m/s2 during each second.
e. The final speed of the particle will be proportional to the distance that the
particle covers.
4. A truck accelerates from rest at point A with constant acceleration of
magnitude a and subsequently passes points B and C as shown in the figure.

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

The distance between points B and C is x , and the time required for the truck
to travel from B to C ist . Which expression determines the average speed of
the truck between the points B and C?
x 1 2
a. v 2=2 ax b. v= c. v=xt d. v= a t e. v=at
t 2
5. Two objects A and B accelerate from rest with the same constant
acceleration. Object A accelerates for twice as much time as object B,
however. Which one of the following statements is true concerning these
objects at the end of their respective periods of acceleration?
a. Object A will travel twice as far as object B.
b. Object A will travel four times as far as object B.
c. Object A will travel eight times further than object B.
d. Object A will be moving four times faster than object B.
e. Object A will be moving eight times faster than object B.
6. Which one of the following statements must be true if the expression
1 2
x=v 0 t + a t is to be used?
2
a. x is constant. c. t is constant. e. Both v 0 and t are constant.
b. v is constant. d a is constant.
7. Two cars travel along a level highway. It is observed that the distance
between the cars is increasing. Which one of the following statements
concerning this situation is necessarily true?
a. The velocity of each car is increasing.
b. At least one of the cars has non-zero acceleration.
c. The leading car has the greater acceleration.
d. The trailing car has the smaller acceleration.
e. Both cars could be accelerating at the same rate.
8. An object moving along a straight line is decelerating. Which one of the
following statements concerning the object’s acceleration is necessarily
true?
a. The value of the acceleration is positive.
b. The direction of the acceleration is in the same direction as the
displacement.
c. An object that is decelerating has a negative acceleration.
d. The direction of the acceleration is in the direction opposite to that of the
velocity.
e. The acceleration changes as the object moves along the line.
9. A car, starting from rest, accelerates in a straight-line path at a constant rate
of 2.5 m/s2. How far will the car travel in 12 seconds?
a. 180 m c. 30 m e. 4.8 m
b. 120 m d. 15 m

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

10. A car starts from rest and accelerates at a constant rate in a straight line. In
the first second the car covers a distance of 2.0 meters. How fast will the car
be moving at the end of the second second?
a. 4.0 m/s c. 2.0 m/s e. 8.0 m/s
b. 16 m/s d. 32 m/s

11. A car starts from rest and accelerates at a constant rate in a straight line. In
the first second the car covers a distance of 2.0 meters. How much
additional distance will the car cover during the second second of its motion?
a. 2.0 m c. 6.0 m e. 13 m
b. 4.0 m d. 8.0 m
12. A car is initially traveling at 50.0 km/h. The brakes are applied and the car
stops over a distance of 35 m. What was magnitude of the car's acceleration
while it was braking?
a. 2.8 m/s2 c. 36 m/s2 e. 9.8 m/s2
b. 5.4 m/s2 d. 71 m/s2
13. The minimum take off speed for a certain airplane is 75 m/s. What minimum
acceleration is required if the plane must leave a runway of length 950 m?
Assume the plane starts from rest at one end of the runway.
a. 1.5 m/s2 c. 4.5 m/s2 e. 7.5 m/s2
b. 3.0 m/s2 d. 6.0 m/s2
14. A body initially at rest is accelerated at a constant rate for 5.0 seconds in
the positive x direction. If the final speed of the body is 20.0 m/s, what was
the body's acceleration?
a. 0.25 m/s2 c. 4.0 m/s2 e. 1.6 m/s2
b. 2.0 m/s2 d. 9.8 m/s2
15. A racecar has a speed of 80 m/s when the driver releases a drag
parachute. If the parachute causes a deceleration of –4 m/s2, how far will
the car travel before it stops?
a. 20 m c. 400 m e. 1000 m
b. 200 m d. 800 m

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Answer the following questions completely and logically. Box your final answer.

1. A soapbox derby race car starts at rest and moves 300 m down a track in
22.4 s. Calculate its average acceleration (assumed constant) and its speed
at the end of the track.
2. A sky diver slows from 52 m/s to 8m/s in 0.80 s as her parachute opens.
Calculate the magnitude of her deceleration (assumed constant) and the
distance she falls while the parachute is opening.
3. A bus driver forgets to stop at a bus stop. Just as she passes the stop, she
decelerates. Five seconds later the bus is 80 m beyond the stop and has
slowed to 10 m/s. (a) Calculate the speed of the bus as it passed the bus
stop. (b) What is the deceleration of the bus (assumed constant)?

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Lesson 5
GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION

Learning Outcomes
1. Describe the effects of gravity on objects in motion.
2. Describe the motion of objects that are in free fall.
3. Calculate the position and velocity of objects in free fall.

One important example of linear motion with approximately constant

acceleration is the vertical motion of objects thrown into the air or of objects
falling through the air. The most remarkable and unexpected fact about falling
objects is that, if air resistance and friction are negligible, then in a given
location all objects fall toward the center of Earth with the same constant
acceleration, independent of their mass. This experimentally determined fact is
unexpected, because we are so accustomed to the effects of air resistance and
friction that we expect light objects to fall slower than heavy ones.
For the ideal situations, an object falling without air resistance or friction is
defined to be in free-fall. The force of gravity causes objects to fall toward the
center of Earth. The acceleration of free-falling objects is therefore called the
acceleration due to gravity. The acceleration due to gravity is constant,
which means we can apply the kinematics equations to any falling object
where air resistance and friction are negligible.
The magnitude of this acceleration, which we give the symbol g, has a value at
the earth's surface
2
g=9.8 m/s
Although g varies from 9.78 m/s2 to 9.83 m/s2, depending on latitude, altitude,
underlying geological formations, and local topography, the average value of
9.80 m/s2 will be used unless otherwise specified. The direction of the
acceleration due to gravity is downward (towards the center of Earth). In
fact, its direction defines what we call vertical. *Note that whether the
acceleration a in the kinematic equations has the value +g or −g depends on
how we define our coordinate system. If we define the upward direction as
positive, then a = −g = −9.80 m/s 2, and if we define the downward direction as
positive, then a = g = 9.80 m/s2.

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

We have said that this gravitational acceleration is a constant only if we ignore

air resistance. For what situations can air resistance be ignored? The answer to
this question depends on several factors:
1. If you desire great accuracy, then you must consider air resistance.
2. How fast is an object moving? The faster the object moves, the more air
resistance affects its acceleration.
3. The shape and surface area of an object greatly affect air resistance. Air
resistance on an open parachute is much greater than on a parachute
still enclosed in its bag.
4. Air resistance is much more important for a light object, such as a Ping-
Pong ball, than for a heavier object of the same size, such as a golf ball.

Obviously, no general rule tells us when air resistance can be ignored. In our
examples and problems the objects will be moving through the air at moderate
speeds and will be relatively heavy and/or streamlined. We will ignore air
resistance, even though its effect may be significant.
So we start by considering straight up and down motion with no air resistance
or friction. These assumptions mean that the velocity (if there is any) is vertical.
If the object is dropped, we know the initial velocity is zero. Once the object has
left contact with whatever held or threw it, the object is in free-fall. Under these
circumstances, the motion is one-dimensional and has constant acceleration of
magnitude g. We will also represent vertical displacement with the symbol y
and use x for horizontal displacement.
We will use the set of four equations derived in the previous lesson to relate the
position, velocity, and acceleration, at different times, of objects moving in the
vertical direction under the influence of the gravitational acceleration.
For this vertical motion, Eqs. 1 ̶ 4 become
v=v 0 + at Eq.1y

y− y 0= ( v+2v ) t
0
Eq.2y

1 2
y− y 0=v 0 t+ at Eq.3y
2
2 2
2 a ( y− y 0 )=v −v 0 Eq.4y

Let us consider some examples.

EXAMPLES 1 A high-jumper leaps into the air with an initial speed of 5.8m/s.
How high will she be the top of her flight, when v = 0?*

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

*At the top of a person's jump, her velocity is neither up nor down. The person has stopped for just an
instant while changing direction.

SOLUTION If we choose the ground level as the origin of our y-coordinate axis
and the y axis points up, then the known quantities for this problem are:
y 0=0 m

v o=5.8 m/s
2
a=̶ g=−9.8 m/s
We wish to know the value is y when v = 0. Equation 4y can be used to
calculate the jumper's height at the top of the jump:
2 2
v −v 0
y− y 0=
2a

( )
2
m
02− 5.8
s
¿
( m
2 −9.8 2
s )
y− y 0=1.7 m .

EXAMPLE2 A person can test your reaction time by dropping a ruler between
your fingers, as shown in the figure below. The distance the ruler falls before
you catch it indicates the time the ruler falls and hence your reaction time. What
is your reaction time if the ruler falls 20 cm before you catch it?

SOLUTION Let us choose the initial position of the lower edge of the ruler as
the origin of the coordinate system. We will follow the motion of this lower edge.
If we orient the y-axis so that it points down, then the known quantities are:

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

y 0=0

v 0=0
2
a=g=9.8 m/s
We wish to find the time t when the bottom edge of the ruler has fallen to
y=20 cm=0.20 m. It is important to use units all from the same system of units.
Thus, if g is in m/s2, y should be in meters and not in centimeters. Equation 3y
can be used to findt :
1 2
y− y 0=v 0 t+ at
2
1
( 0.20 m )−( 0 )=( 0 ) t + ( 9.8 m/s 2 ) t 2
2
Thus,
2 ( 0.20 m )
t 2= 2
9.8 m/s
2 2
t =0.041 s
or
t=0.20 s
This is about the amount of time needed for information to travel from your eye
to your brain and then to your hand so that it can grab the ruler.

Lesson 6
PROJECTILE MOTION

A projectile is an object that moves through space under the influence of the
earth’s gravitational force. Two coordinates must be used to describe the
projectile’s motion, since it moves horizontally as well as vertically. Examples of
projectile motion are the path followed by a baseball having been hit into the air
by a bat or by an ice skater jumping over some barrels.

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 LEARNING MODULE IN GENERAL PHYSICS I STEM_G11V

Often a strong, abrupt force initiates the motion of a projectile. Following this
force, the projectile moves through the air and is influenced only by the
gravitational force pulling down on it and by air resistance. If the effect of air
resistance is ignored, it is quite easy to use equations, such as those
developed in the previous lessons, to analyze the motion of a projectile – how
far will it travel, how high it will go, and so forth.

When the four linear motion equations are used to analyze projectile motion,
the horizontal and vertical motions of the projectile are treated independently,
as illustrated in the following figure.

An ejector seat is placed in a car. When the car is at rest, the seat is adjusted
so that, when released, the driver shoots straight up into the air and returns
again to seat. Without readjusting the seat, the driver next travels at constant
speed toward an underpass. Just before the car reaches the underpass, the
ejector seat shoots the driver straight up into the air. Since the driver and car
are both moving horizontally at the same speed before the driver is released,
both continue this horizontal motion as though nothing had happened. Thus,
when the driver comes back down to the level of the car, he again finds himself
back in the front seat, having flown over the underpass. The point is that both
objects had the same horizontal motion, which was unaffected by the vertical
flight of the driver.

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Projectile motion, then, is described in terms of motion in the horizontal or x

direction and independently by motion in the vertical, or y direction. If air
resistance can be ignored, the projectile’s horizontal motion continues at
constant velocity because its horizontal acceleration is zero. The vertical
motion, however, will have acceleration due to gravity. We can therefore
restate the four linear motion equations as two separate sets of equations: One
set describes the horizontal or x motion of the projectile, for which a x =0 ; the
other set describes the vertical or y motion, for which a y =−g (the y-axis is
oriented upward).

PROJECTILE MOTION

x Equations (a x =0 ) y Equations (a y =−g)

v x =v x o
Eq. 1x v y =v y −¿
0
Eq. 1y

x−x 0= ( v x + vx
o

2
t ) Eq. 2x
y− y 0= ( vy +vy
2
0
t ) Eq. 2y

x−x 0=v x t Eq.3x 1 2 Eq.3y

o
y− y 0=v y t− ¿
2
0

2 2 2 2
0=v x −v x Eq. 4x −2 g ( y− y 0 ) =v y −v y Eq. 4y
0 0

Most often a projectile leaves the ground at some angle  with a speed v 0, as
shown in the figure. In such a case, the initial speed in the x direction is the x
component of v 0, or v x =v 0 cos ❑. The initial speed in the y direction is the y
0

component of v 0, or v y =v 0 sin❑ . 0

Often the y equations are used to determine the length of the time the projectile
remains in the air and the x equations to determine how far the projectile will
have traveled horizontally during that time. For example, if a projectile leaves
ground level and returns to ground level, Eq. 3y with y = 0 and y 0 = 0 can be
solved for t. Equation 3x can then be used to calculate the distance the
projectile travels in that time.

EXAMPLE1 A football player kicks off from the 40-yd line. How far will the ball
travel before hitting the ground if its initial speed v 0 is 80 ft/s and the ball leaves
the ground at an angle of 30? (Assume that air resistance can be ignored, a
poor assumption in this problem.)

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SOLUTION First, we solve the y equations to find the time of flight of the ball.
The known conditions for the y motion are

80 ft
y 0=0 and v y =sin 30, where v 0=
.
0
s
We need to find the time t when y=0, that is, when the ball returns to ground
level. Equation (3y) can be used:

1 2
0−0=v o sin 30 t− g t
2

2 v 0 sin30
t=
g

2 ( 80 ft /s ) ( 0.5 )
t=
( 32 ft /s 2)

t=2.5 s

Next we find the horizontal distance ( x−x 0 ) the ball travels during this time.
Equation (3x) provides this information:

x−x 0=v 0 t

¿ ( v 0 cos 30 ) t

¿ ( 80 ft /s )( 0.87 ) ( 2.5 s )

x−x 0=170 ft

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1. A ball is in free fall. Its acceleration is:

a. downward during both ascent and descent
b. downward during ascent and upward during descent
c. upward during ascent and downward during descent
d. upward during both ascent and descent
e. downward at all times except at the very top, when it is zero
2. A ball is in free fall. Upward is taken to be the positive direction. The
displacement of the ball during a short time interval is:
a. positive during both ascent and descent
b. negative during both ascent and descent
c. negative during ascent and positive during descent
d. positive during ascent and negative during descent
e. none of the above
3. A baseball is thrown vertically into the air. The acceleration of the ball at its
highest point is:
a. zero b. g, down c. g, up d. 2g, down e. 2g, up
4. Which one of the following statements is correct for an object released from
rest?
a. The average velocity during the first second of time is 4.9 m/s
b. During each second the object falls 9.8 m
c. The acceleration changes by 9.8 m/s2 every second
d. The object falls 9.8 m during the first second of time
e. The acceleration of the object is proportional to its weight
5. A freely falling body has a constant acceleration of 9.8 m/s 2. This means
that:
a. the body falls 9.8 m during each second
b. the body falls 9.8 m during the first second only
c. the speed of the body increases by 9.8 m/s during each second
d. the acceleration of the body increases by 9.8 m/s2 during each second
e. the acceleration of the body decreases by 9.8 m/s2 during each second
6. An object is shot vertically upward. While it is rising:
a. its velocity and acceleration are both upward

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b. its velocity is upward and its acceleration is downward

c. its velocity and acceleration are both downward
d. its velocity is downward and its acceleration is upward
e. its velocity and acceleration are both decreasing
7. A football is kicked at an angle θ with respect to the horizontal. Which one of
the following statements best describes the acceleration of the football
during this event if air resistance is neglected?
a. The acceleration is zero m/s2 at all times.
b. The acceleration is 9.8 m/s2 at all times.
c. The acceleration is zero m/s2 when the football has reached the highest
point in its trajectory.
d. The acceleration is positive as the football rises, and it is negative as the
football falls.
e. The acceleration starts at 9.8 m/s 2 and drops to some constant lower
value as the ball approaches the ground.
8. What is the acceleration of the projectile when it reaches its maximum
height?
a. zero m/s2
b. 9.8 m/s2, downward
c. 4.9 m/s2, downward
d. less than 9.8 m/s2 and non-zero.
e. Its magnitude is 9.8 m/s2; and its direction is changing.
9. A passenger at rest on a flatbed train car fires a bullet straight up. The event
is viewed by observers at rest on the station platform as the train moves past
the platform with constant velocity. What is the trajectory of the bullet as
described by the observers on the platform?
a. a straight horizontal path in the direction of the train's velocity
b. a straight vertical path up and down
c. a circular path centered on the gun
d. a straight diagonal path
e. a parabolic path
10. A feather, initially at rest, is released in a vacuum 12 m above the surface
of the earth. Which of the following statements is correct?
a. The maximum velocity of the feather is 9.8 m/s
b. The acceleration of the feather decreases until terminal velocity is reached
c. The acceleration of the feather remains constant during the fall
d. The acceleration of the feather increases during the fall
e. The acceleration of the feather is zero

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Answer the following questions completely and logically. Box your final answer.

1. An airplane traveling horizontally at 78 m/s at an elevation of 210 m drops

bales of hay to cows stranded in a snowstorm. (a) At what horizontal
distance from the cows should the bales be dropped? Ignore air resistance.
(b) Calculate the velocity of a bale as it reaches the ground.

2. A Skier leaves the jump horizontally with an initial velocity of 25 m/s. The
initial height at the end of the ramp is 80 m above the landing position. (a)
How long is the skier in the air? (b) How far does the skier travel
horizontally? (c) What are the horizontal and vertical components of the final
velocity?

3. A projectile is fired with an initial velocity of 80 m/s at an angle of 30° above

the horizontal. Find (a) its position and velocity after 6 s, (b) the time
required to reach the maximum height, and (c) The horizontal range R.

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Lesson 7
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION

Learning Outcomes
1. State and explain Newton's laws of motion.
2. Differentiate the properties of static friction and kinetic friction.
3. Visualize and differentiate the difference between a direct
proportion and an inverse proportion using the formula F=ma.
4. Distinguish mass and weight.
5. Use Newton's second law to compare the amount of force
required to move objects of varying masses.
6. Differentiate contact and noncontact forces.
7. Identify action-reaction pairs.
8. Draw and explain simplified free-body diagrams showing action-
reaction pairs.
9. Give examples of each of Newton's three laws as they occur in
everyday experiences.

Newton’s laws of motion, relations between the forces acting on a body and the
motion of the body, first formulated by English physicist and mathematician Sir
Isaac Newton. He is famous for his discovery of the law of gravity and the three
laws of motion. These three laws have become known as Newton's three laws
of motion that describe the motion of all objects on the scale we experience in
our everyday lives.

Newton's First Law of Motion: Law of Inertia

The tendency of things to resist changes in motion was what Galileo called
inertia. Newton refined Galileo’s idea and made it his first law, appropriately
called the law of inertia. From Newton’s Principia (translated from the original
Latin):

Every object continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a

straight line, unless it is compelled to change to that state by forces
impressed upon it.

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The key word in this law is continues: an object continues to do whatever it

happens to be doing unless a force is exerted upon it. If it is at rest, it continues
in a state of rest. If it is moving, it continues to move without turning or
changing its speed. In short, the law says that an object does not accelerate of
itself; acceleration must be imposed against the tendency of an object to retain
its state of motion.

Inertia – the tendency of things to resist changes in motion. Things at

rest tend to stay at rest – things moving tend to continue moving.

Examples of Inertia

1. Why will the coin drop into the glass when a force accelerates the card?

2. When riding in a moving car, you tend to move forward when a sudden break
is applied and you feel a backward force when the car moves quickly from
rest.

Every material object possesses inertia; how much depends on the amount of
matter in the substance of the object – the more matter, the more inertia. In
speaking of how much matter something has, we use the term mass. The
greater the mass of an object, the greater its inertia. Mass is a measure of the
inertia of a material object.

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Mass corresponds to our intuitive notion of weight. We casually say that

something has a lot of mass if it weighs a lot. But there is a difference between
mass and weight. We can define each as follows:

Mass: The quantity of matter in an object. It is also the measure of the

inertia or sluggishness that an object exhibits in response to any effort
made to start it, stop it, or to change its state of motion in any way.

Weight: The force upon an object due to gravity.

Mass and weight are directly proportional to each other. If the mass of an
object is doubled, its weight is also doubled; if the mass is halved, the weight is
halved. Because of this, mass and weight are often interchanged. Also, mass
and weight are sometimes confused because it is customary to measure the
quantity of matter in things (mass) by their gravitational attraction to earth
(weight). But mass is more fundamental than weight; it is a fundamental
quantity that completely escapes the notice of most people.

Examples:

1. On your way to school, a bug flies into your windshield. Since the bug is
so small, it has very little inertia and exerts a very small force on your car
(so small that you don’t even feel it).
2. A powerful locomotive begins to pull a long line of boxcars that were
sitting at rest. Since the boxcars are so massive, they have a great deal
of inertia and it takes a large force to change their motion. Once they
are moving, it takes a large force to stop them.

If objects in motion tend to stay in motion, why don’t moving objects keep
moving forever?

Things don’t keep moving forever because there’s almost always

unbalanced force acting upon it.

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Unbalanced Force

If the forces on an object are equal and opposite, they are said to
be balanced, and the object experiences no change in motion. If
they are not equal and opposite, then the forces are unbalanced
and the motion of the object changes.

Objects on earth, are under the influence of friction. The force of friction is hard
to remove in any object. Even an object like an airplane flying through the air
encounters air resistance. This is why objects don't move continuously if no
forces are acting on the body. After a body has been put into motion, it will
eventually stop due to the retarding force of friction. If you have ever climbed a
rock wall, you know that gravity is constantly pulling you downward, while you
are using your strength to pull yourself upwards. However, another force helps
you while climbing by preventing your feet and hands from slipping. This is
friction.

Friction – the resistive force that opposes the motion or attempted motion
of an object past another with which it is in contact, or through a fluid.

There are four main types of friction:

1. Static friction is the type of friction that exists between a stationary

object and the surface it is placed on. It prevents things from moving
around when we place them somewhere. The glass that is probably on
your table right now is standing still because of static friction. Even if
things are slightly tilted, static friction can work its magic to an extent.

2. Sliding friction is the type of friction that occurs between two objects
that are sliding against each other. In sliding friction, there is always

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another force involved. This force makes the object move. By pushing
an object, we create sliding friction; it is as simple as that.

3. Rolling friction, also known as rolling resistance, is the force that slows
down rolling balls or wheels. It slows down their motion, to be exact.
Interestingly, rolling friction is also the reason why things start to move in
a rolling motion in the first place. If we apply some sort of force to a
wheel that is not moving, small static friction is holding it back from
starting its rolling motion. The resistance from rolling friction causes the
wheel to start moving in the first place. However, once the wheel is
rolling, it will start to hinder its motion and slow it down. To keep the
object moving, we need the presence of another force.

4. Fluid Friction. Air resistance, also known as drag, is something we can

witness everywhere around us. Throwing a ball creates it, as does the
launching of an aircraft. Firing a bullet from a gun is another good
example of this. We believe that all of these things naturally slow down
by traveling through air. However, this is not the case. Fluid friction is
what causes these things to slow down, and it is largely influenced by
the shape of the object and the speed which it is using to move.

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Fluid friction is largely influenced by the shape of the object and the speed which it is
using to move.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Every day we see things that do not continue in a constant state of motion:
objects initially at rest later may move; moving objects may follow paths that
are not straight lines; things in motion may stop. Most of the motion we observe
undergoes changes and is the result of one or more applied forces. The overall
net force, whether it is from a single source or a combination of sources,
produces acceleration. The relationship of acceleration to force and inertia is
given in Newton’s second law.

The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force

acting on the object, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.

In summarized form, this is

net force
accleration
mass
In symbol notation, this is simply
F
a
m
We shall use the wiggly line as a symbol meaning “is proportional
to.” We say that acceleration a is directly proportional to the overall net force F
and inversely proportional to the massm . By this we mean that if F increases, a
increases by the same factor (if F doubles, a doubles); but if m increases, a
decreases by the same factor (if m doubles, a is cut in half). With appropriate
units of F ,m , and a , the proportionality may be expressed as an exact equation:

F
a=
m

An object is accelerated in the direction of the force acting on it. Applied in the
direction of the object’s motion, a force will increase the object’s speed. Applied
in the opposite direction, it will decrease the speed of the object. Applied at
right angles, it will deflect the object. Any other direction of application will result
in a combination of speed change and deflection. The acceleration of an object
is always in the direction of the net force.

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The net force is the vector sum of all the forces that act upon an object. That is
to say, the net force is the sum of all the forces, taking into account the fact that
a force is a vector and two forces of equal magnitude and opposite direction will
cancel each other out.

Examples:

1. Kicking a ball - When we kick a ball we exert force in a specific

direction, which is the direction in which it will travel. In addition, the
stronger the ball is kicked, the stronger the force we put on it and the
further away it will travel.
2. Pushing a cart - It is easier to push an empty cart in a supermarket than
it is to push a loaded one. More mass requires more force to accelerate.
3. Reducing the weight of racing cars to increase their speed - In cars
racing, engineers try to keep vehicle mass as low as possible, as lower
mass means more acceleration, and the higher the acceleration the
greater the chances of winning the race.

A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction
with another object. Whenever there is an interaction between two objects,
there is a force upon each of the objects. When the interaction ceases, the two
objects no longer experience the force. Forces only exist as a result of an
interaction.

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All forces between objects can be placed into two broad categories:

1. Contact forces are those types of forces that result when the two
interacting objects are perceived to be physically contacting each other.
Examples of contact forces include frictional forces, tensional forces,
normal forces, air resistance forces, and applied forces.

2. Action-at-a-distance forces are those types of forces that result even

when the two interacting objects are not in physical contact with each
other, yet are able to exert a push or pull despite their physical
separation.
Example:
a. Gravitational Forces - the sun and planets exert a gravitational
pull on each other despite their large spatial separation. Even
when your feet leave the earth and you are no longer in physical
contact with the earth, there is a gravitational pull between you
and the Earth.
b. Electric Forces - the protons in the nucleus of an atom and the
electrons outside the nucleus experience an electrical pull
towards each other despite their small spatial separation.
c. Magnetic Forces - two magnets can exert a magnetic pull on
each other even when separated by a distance of a few
centimeters.

Newton’s Third Law of Motion: The Law of Action and Reaction

The great potential for analysing interesting and complex situations by using
Newton’s second law is not apparent from the relatively simple examples
presented so far. As situations become more complex and interesting, we must
use greater care to identify which forces act on an object to cause its
acceleration. The words act on are especially important.

Consider for example the interaction between the hammer and a stake. A
hammer exerts a force on a stake and drives it into the ground. But this force is
only half the story, for there must be a force to halt the hammer in the process.
What exerts this force? The stake! Newton reasoned that while the hammer
exerts a force on the stake, the stake exerts a force on the hammer. So in the
interaction between the hammer and the stake there is a pair of forces – one
acting on the stake and the other acting on the hammer. Such observations led
Newton to his third law – the law of action and reaction.

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Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second

object exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.

Newton indicated on his third law of motion that forces always come in pairs –
an action force and its reaction force. The action force is the force exerted by
one object on another. The reaction force is the force exerted by the other
object on the first. These forces are co-parts of a single interaction and that
neither force exists without the other. They are equal in strength and opposite
in direction. Newton’s third law is often stated thus: “For every action there is
an equal and opposite reaction.”

Examples:

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We know that forces can cancel when they are equal and act on opposite
directions on the same object. Even though action and reaction forces are
equal and oppositely directed, they don’t cancel each other when they are
acting on different objects. Consider the force pair between the apple and
the orange.

Suppose we ignore the apple and consider only the orange. We draw
imaginary circle around the orange and call what is within the circle the system.
The pull from the apple supplies a force on the system, and the system
accelerates. Here the interaction is between the system (the orange) and
something external (the apple), so the action and reaction forces don’t cancel in
the system. The fact that the orange simultaneously exerts a force on the
apple, which is external to the system, affects the apple but not the orange.

Now if we consider the system to be both the orange and the apple, the force
pair is internal to the system.

In such a case, when the action and reaction forces are taken to be inside the
same system, the forces do cancel each other. If there were no friction or any
other forces acting on the system, the apple and the orange would move closer
but, due to the cancellation of external forces, the system’s center of mass
would be in the same place before and after the pulling. The system itself

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would not accelerate though its internal parts would. Similarly, the many force
pairs between the atoms in a baseball may hold the ball together, but they don’t
produce acceleration of the ball. An external force is needed to accelerate the
ball. Likewise, a force external to both orange and apple is needed to produce
acceleration of the orange-apple system. Friction between the floor and the
apple’s feet would do the trick.

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Multiple Choice Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. With one exception, each of the following units can be used to express
mass. What is the exception?
a. newton b. slug c. gram d. N•s2/m e. kilogram
2. Complete the following statement: The term net force most accurately
describes
a. the mass of an object.
b. the inertia of an object.
c. the quantity that causes displacement.
d. the quantity that keeps an object moving.
e. the quantity that changes the velocity of an object.
3. Which one of the following terms is used to indicate the natural tendency of
an object to remain at rest or in motion at a constant speed along a straight
line?
a. velocity b. force c. acceleration d. equilibrium e. inertia
4. A net force F is required to give an object with mass m an acceleration a. If a
net force 6 F is applied to an object with mass 2 m, what is the acceleration
on this object?
a. a b. 2a c. 3a d. 4a e. 6a
5. When the net force that acts on a hockey puck is 10 N, the puck accelerates
at a rate of 50 m/s2. Determine the mass of the puck.
a. 0.2 kg b. 1.0 kg c. 5 kg d. 10 kg e. 50 kg
6. A newton is the force:
a. of gravity on a 1 kg body
b. of gravity on a 1 g body
c. that gives a 1 g body an acceleration of 1 cm/s2
d. that gives a 1 kg body an acceleration of 1 m/s2
e. that gives a 1 kg body an acceleration of 9.8 m/s2
7. Acceleration is always in the direction:
a. of the displacement
b. of the initial velocity
c. of the final velocity
d. of the net force
e. opposite to the frictional force
8. The term “mass” refers to the same physical concept as:
a. weight b. inertia c. force d. acceleration e. volume

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9. The inertia of a body tends to cause the body to:

a. speed up
b. slow down
c. resists any change in its motion
d. fall toward earth
e. decelerate due to friction
10. Mass differs from weight in that:
a. all objects have weight but some lack mass
b. weight is a force and mass is not
c. the mass of an object is always more than its weight
d. mass can be expressed only in the metric system
e. there is no difference
11. The mass of a body:
a. is slightly different at different places on earth
b. is a vector
c. is independent of the free-fall acceleration
d. is the same for all bodies of the same volume
e. can be measured most accurately on a spring scale
12. A crate rests on a horizontal surface and a woman pulls on it with a 10-N
force. Rank the situations shown below according to the magnitude of the
normal force exerted by the surface on the crate, least to greatest.

a. 1, 2, 3 b. 2, 1, 3 c. 2, 3, 1 d. 1, 3, 2 e. 3, 2, 1
13. Equal forces ⃗ F act on isolated bodies A and B. The mass of B is three times
that of A. The magnitude of the acceleration of A is:
a. three times that of B
b. 1/3 that of B
c. the same as B
d. nine times that of B
e. 1/9 that of B
14. A car travels east at constant velocity. The net force on the car is:
a. east b. west c. up d. down e. zero
15. The “reaction” force does not cancel the “action” force because:
a. the action force is greater than the reaction force
b. they are on different bodies
c. they are in the same direction
d. the reaction force exists only after the action force is removed
e. the reaction force is greater than the action force

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16. A book rests on a table, exerting a downward force on the table. The
reaction to this force is:
a. the force of earth on the book
b. the force of the table on the book
c. the force of earth on the table
d. the force of the book on earth
e. the inertia of the book
17. A lead block is suspended from your hand by a string. The reaction to the
force of gravity on the block is the force exerted by:
a. the string on the block
b. the block on the string
c. the string on the hand
d. the hand on the string
e. the block on Earth

Questions 18 and 19 pertain to the situation described below:

A horse pulls a cart along a flat road. Consider the following four forces that
arise in this situation.
(1) the force of the horse pulling on the cart
(2) the force of the cart pulling on the horse
(3) the force of the horse pushing on the road
(4) the force of the road pushing on the horse

18. Which two forces form an "action-reaction" pair that obeys Newton's third
law?
a. 1 and 4 c. 2 and 4 e. 2 and 3
b. 1 and 3 d. 3 and 4
19. Suppose that the horse and cart have started from rest; and as time goes
on, their speed increases in the same direction. Which one of the following
conclusions is correct concerning the magnitudes of the forces mentioned
above?
a. Force 1 exceeds force 2.
b. Force 2 is less than force 3.
c. Force 2 exceeds force 4. magnitudes.
d. Force 3 exceeds force 4.
e. Forces 1 and 2 cannot have equal

Questions 20 and 21 pertain to the situation described below:

A physics student in a hot air balloon ascends vertically at constant speed.
Consider the following four forces that arise in this situation:
F1 = the weight of the hot air balloon
F2 = the weight of the student
F3 = the force of the student pulling on the earth
F4 = the force of the hot air balloon pulling on the student

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20. Which two forces form an "action-reaction" pair that obeys Newton's third
law?
a. F1 and F2 c. F1 and F3 e. F3 and F4
b. F2 and F3 d. F2 and F4
‡ 21. Which one of the following relationships concerning the forces or their
magnitudes is true?
a. F4 > F2 c. F4 > F1 e. F3 = –F4
b. F1 < F2 d. F2 = –F4

Questions 22 and 23 pertain to the situation described below:

A book is resting on the surface of a table. Consider the following four forces
that arise in this situation:
(1) the force of the earth pulling on the book
(2) the force of the table pushing on the book
(3) the force of the book pushing on the table
(4) the force of the book pulling on the earth

22. Which two forces form an "action-reaction" pair that obeys Newton's third
law?
a. 1 and 2 c. 1 and 4 e. 3 and 4
b. 1 and 3 d. 2 and 4
23. The book has an acceleration of 0 m/s 2. Which pair of forces, excluding
"action-reaction" pairs, must be equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction?
a. 1 and 2 c. 1 and 4 e. 2 and 4
b.1 and 3 d. 2 and 3
24&25. BONUS!

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REFERENCES

Accuracy and Precision. Retrieved from

[Link]
%3A_Introductory_Chemistry_(CK12)/03%3A_Measurements/
3.12%3A_Accuracy_and_Precision on September 19, 2020
Cutnell, J & Johnson, K. Physics ( 2009). 8th Edition. New York. Johnson
Wiley and Sons.
Definition of the SI Base Units. Retrieved from
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